BIRD-
•LIFE
FRANK M CHAPMAN
FOR THE PEOPLE
FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE
LIBRARY
OF
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF
NATURAL HISTORY
By FRANK M. CHAPMAN,
Curator of Birds in the American Museum
Natural History.
HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA.
With Keys to the Species, Descriptions of their
Plumages, Nests, etc., and their Distribution and
Migrations. With over 200 Illustrations. i2mo.
Library Edition, $3.00.
Pocket Edition, flexible covers, $3.50.
BIRD'LIFE. A Guide lo the Study of Our Common Birds.
Popular Edition in colors, $2.00 net.
BIRD STUDIES WITH A CAMERA. Wilh Introductory
Chapters 011 the Ouifit and Methods of ibe Bird Photographer.
Illustrated with over 100 Photographs from Nature
by the Author. i2mo. Cloth, $1.75.
THE WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA.
With Contributions from other Ornithologists and
24 full-page Colored Plates illustrating ever}'
Species, from Drawings by L. A. Fuertes and B.
Horsfall, and Half-tones of Nests and Eggs. 8vo.
Cloth, $3.00 net.
CAMPS AND CRUISES OF AN ORNITHOLOGIST.
Illustrated by 250 Photographs from Nature by
the Author. 8vo. Cloth, $3.00 net.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.
\-
>^
-J
V
Plate I,
Page 156.
BAEN SWALLOW.
CLIFF SWALLOW. TEEE SWALLOW.
BANK SWALLOW.
POPULAR EDITION IN COLORS
■/i./.i I, \
BIRD-LIFE .
A GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF
OUR COMMON BIRDS
BY
FRANK M. CHAPMAN
CURATOR OF ORNITHOLOGY, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' I^NION
AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA,'"
"BIRD STUDIES WITH A CAMERA," "CAMI'S AND CRUISES
OF AN ORNITHOLOGIST," ETC.
IV/rf/ SEVENTY-FIVE FULL-PAGE COLORED PLATES
AFTER DRAWINGS BY ERNEST THOMPSON SETON
NEW YORK AND LONDON
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1912
^\
Mvc(<?ti^^ \\o\
M, f'i mi: 1/ : 1
TO
Dr. J. A. ALLEN
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED
AS A TOKEN OF RESPECT AND AFFECTION
FROM ONE WHO
FOR NINE YEARS UAS WORKED AT HIS SIDE,
9
Copyright. 1897. 1890, 1901,
By d. appleton and company.
Printed in the United States of America.
PEEFACE.
How urmsual it is to meet any one who can correctly
name a dozen of our birds ! One may live in the country
and still know only two or three of the one hundred and
fifty or more kinds of birds that may be found during
the year, Nevertheless, these gay, restless creatures,
both by voice and action, constantly invite our attention,
and they are far too intei-esting and beautiful to be
ignored. No one to whom Nature appeals should be
without some knowledge of these, the most attractive of
her animate forms.
The scientific results to be derived from the study of
birds are fully realized by the naturalist. But there are
other results equally important. I would have every one
know of them : results that add to our pleasure in field
and wood, and give fresh interest to walks that before
were eventless ; that quicken both ear and eye, making
us hear and see where before we were deaf and l)lind.
Then, to our surprise, we shall discover that the forests
and pastures we have known all our lives are tenanted
by countless featliererl inhabitants whose companionship
will prove a source of endless enjoyment.
I would enter a special plea for the study of birds in
the schools ; for the more general introduction of
ornithology in natural -history courses. Frogs and cray-
fish serve an excellent purpose, but we may not en-
counter either of them after leaving the laborntory ;
whereas birds not only offer excellent opportunities for
iv PREFACE.
study, but are always about us, and even a slight famil-
iarity with them will be of value long after school days
are over.
Popular interest must precede the desire for purely
technical knowledge. The following pages are not ad-
dressed to past masters in ornithology, but to those who
desire a general knowledge of bird- life and some ac-
quaintance with our commoner birds. The opening
chapters of this book briefly define the bird, its place in
Natm-e and its relation to man, and outline the leading
facts in its life-history. The concluding chapters pre-
sent the portraits, names, and addresses of upward of one
hundred familiar birds of eastern North America, with
such information concerning their comings and goings
as will lead, I trust, to their being found at home.
After this introduction the student may be left on
the threshold, with the assurance that his entrance to the
innermost circles of bird-life depends entirely on his own
patience and enthusiasm.
Frank M. Chapman.
American Museum of Natural History,
New York city, January, 1897.
PREFACE TO POPULAR COLORED
EDITION.
Without question the simplest and most certain way
in which to become acquainted with our birds is to exam-
ine the bird itself. Unfortunately for the student, wild
birds seem averse to this proceeding, while comparatively
few people have access to an ornithological collection.
For purposes of identification, therefore, the best substi-
tute for the bird is an accurate plate which shall ade-
quately portray both the form and color of its subject.
The fact that Mr. Thompson Seton's drawings in the
uncolored edition of " Bird-Life " have been conceded to
excel in truth and beauty any series of black-and-white
bird portraits ever published in this country gives reason,
therefore, for the belief that bird lovers will doubly wel-
come a work in which our commoner birds are repre-
sented not only in natural attitudes, but in natural colors
as well. Photographic bromide copies of the original
" Bird-Life " drawings have been colored by an expert
under the author's supervision, and are here reproduced
by lithography.
In selecting the one hundred species to be figured in
this book it has been deemed advisable to omit those,
vi PREFACE TO POPULAR COLORED EDITION.
like the Crow and Robin, with which every one is familiar,
as well as those, like the Cardinal and Scarlet Tauager,
whose identity can be ascertained beyond question by
descriptions, and to introduce in their places birds with
which beginners are less apt to be familiar, thereby
increasing the educational value of the illustrations.
F. M. a
American Museum of Natural History,
March, I'JUl.
CONTENTS.
CHAP. PACK
I. — The bird, its place in Nature and relation to man . 1
Place in Nature— Relation to man.
II. — Toe living bird 14
Factors of evolution — The win^, its form and uses —
The tail, its form and uses — The foot, its form and uses
— The bill, its form and uses.
III. — Colors of birds 35
Color and age — Color and season — The molt — Color and
food — Color and climate — Color and haunt and habit —
Color and sex.
IV, — The migration of birds 48
Extent of migration — Times of migration— Manner of
migration — Origin of migration.
V. — Toe voice of birds 62
Song — Call-notes.
VI. — The nesting season 64
Time of nesting — Mating — The nest — The eggs — The
young.
VII. — How TO identify birds 71
A bird's biography.
Field key to our common Land Birds . . . .75
vii
viii CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Watee Birds 84
Diving Birds — Long-winged Swimmers — Tube-nosed Swim-
mers— Lamellirostral Swimmers — Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc.
—Cranes, Rails, etc. — Shore Birds.
The Laud Birds 100
Gallinaceous Birds — Pigeons and Doves — Birds of Prey —
Cuckoos, Kingfishers, etc. — Woodpeckers — Goatsuckers,
Swil'ts, and Hummingbirds — Perching Birds.
Appendix.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Full-page Plates.
FACING
PLATE PAQE
I. — Barn, Cliff, Bank, and Tree Swallows Frontispiece
IT.— Pied-billed Grebe 2
III. — Loon 6
IV.— Herring Gull; Petrels 10
V. — Wood Duck; Pintails; Mallards: Green-winged
Teal ; Blue-winged Teal ; Canada Geese . . 14
VI. — Little Green Heron; Black-crowned Night Heron;
Great Blue Heron ly
VIT. — American Bittern ; Sora . . . . ' . .22
VIII. — American Coot; Clapper Rail 26
IX.— Wilson's Snipe 30
X. — Common Tern; Semipalmated Sandpiper; Semipal-
mated Plover 34
XI.— Spotted Sandpiper ; Killdeer 88
XII.— Ruffed Grouse 42
XIII. — Mourning Dove .46
XIV.— Red-shouldered Hawk 50
XV.— Marsh Hawk . 52
XVI. — Sparrow Hawk 54
XVII.— Sharp-shinned Hawk 56
XVIII. — American Osprey 58
XIX.— Short-earod Owl 60
XX.— Screech Owl 62
XXI.— Barred Owl 64
XXII.— Yellow-hilled Cuckoo 66
XXIIL— Belted Kingfisher 68
XXIV.— Downy Woodpecker 70
XXV.— Red-headed Woodpecker 84
XXVI.— Flicker 86
XXVII.— Nighthawk ; Whip-poor-will 88
ix
X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FACING
PLATE PAGE
XXVllL— Chimney Swift 90
XXIX.— Kuby-tliroated Hummingbird 92
XXX.— Kingbird 94
XXXI.— Creaied Flycatcher 96
XXXII.— Piiccbe 98
XXXJIL— Wood Pewee 100
XXXIV.— Horned Lark 102
XXXV.— Baltimore Oriole 104
XXXVI.— Orchard Oriole 106
XXXVII.— Purple Grackle 108
XXXVIll.— Bobolink 110
XXXIX.— Meadovvlark 113
XL. — Cowbird 114
XJjI.— Song Sparrow 116
XLII. — Swamp Sparrow 118
XLIIL— Field Sparrow ■ . .120
XLIV.— Vesper Sparrow 122
XLV. — Chipping Sparrow 124
XLVI. — White-throated Sparrow 126
XL VI I.— Fox Sparrow 128
XLVIII.— Junco 130
XLIX.— Tree Sf.arrow 132
L. — Redpoll; Snowflake 134
LI. — American Crossbill; Pine Grosbeak . . . . 136
LII. — American Goldfinch 138
LIIL— Purple Finch 140
LIV. — Ro«e-brcasted Grosbeak 143
■ LV.— Towhee 144
LVI.— Dickcissel 146
LVIL— Cedar Waxwing 148
LVI IT.— Northern Shrike 150
LIX. — Reil-eyed Virco: Yellow-throated Vireo . . . 152
LX.— Black and White Warbler 154
LXI.— Myrtle Warbler; Black-throated Green Warbler . 156
LXIT.— Redstart 158
LXITI.— Oven-bird . . . . ' 160
LXTV.— Maryland Yellow-throat . ' 163
LXV.— Yellow-broasted Chat 104
LXVr.— Mockin-bird . .166
LXVTT.— Brown Thrasher 1C8
LXVIIL—House Wren 170
LX IX.- Long-billed Marsh Wren 172
LXX. — Brown Creeper ; Chickadee 174
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi
FAriNO
PLATE PAGE
LXXl.— Red-breasted Nuthatch ; White-breasted Nuthatch 176
LXXII. — Golden-crowned Kinglet ; Ruby-crowned Kinglet . 178
LXXIII.— Vecry 180
LXXIV.— Wood Thrush 182
LXXV.— Hermit Thrush 184
Figures ix the Text.
FIG. PAGE
1. Restoration of the Archteopteryx, a toothed, reptilelike bird
of the Jurassic period 3
2. End of s;i>earlike tongue of I 'ileated Woodpecker . . .14
3. Tip of tail of (a) Downy Wood|ieuker, (b) Brown Creeper, to
show the pointed shape in tails of creeping birds of dill'erent
families 16
4. Young lloatzin, showing use of hooked fingers in climbing . 17
5. Short, rounded wing and large foot of Little Black Rail, a ter-
restrial bird 18
6. Long, pointed wing and small foot of Tree Swallow, an aerial
bird 18
7. Frigate-bird 19
8. Great Auk. showing relatively small wing . . . .21
9. Wing of Woodcock, siiowing tlu'ce outer attenuate feathers . 24
10. Jacana, showing spurred wing and elongated toes . . .24
11. Tail-feathers of }ilotmoi {Momotun siibrnfeffcens). showing newly
grown feathers and results of self-inflicted mutilation . 26
12. Lobed foot of Coot {Fulica americana), a swimming bird of
the Rail family 27
13. Lobed foot of a Phalarope (Cri/mophilus fulicarius), a swim-
ming bird of the Snipe family 27
14. Flamingo, showing relative length of legs and neck in a wad-
ing bird 28
15. Foot of Fish TIawk. showing large claws and spicules on under
surface of toes 29
16. Naked toes of Ruffed Grouse in summer ; fringed toes of Ruffed
Grouse in winter 29
17. Decurved bill of Sickle-bill ITummingbird . . . .31
18. Serrate bill of Merganser, a fish-eating bird . . .* . 32
19. Probelike bill of Woodcock, showing extent to which upper
mandible can be moved 32
20. Recurved bill of Avocet 32
21. Bill of Spoonbill Sandpiper , 33
xii LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.
KIG. PAGE
22. Curved bill of female, straight bill of male Huia-bird , . 33
23. Feathers from back of Snowflake, showing seasonal changes in
form and color due to wearing off of tips . . . .38
24. Eggs of (o) Spotted Sandpiper and (b) Catbird, to show differ-
ence in size of eggs of praecocial and altricial birds of same
size , 68
25. Topography of a bird . . . « o . « . 74
4.
BIRD-LIFE.
CHAPTEE I.
THE BIRD: ITS PLACE IN NATURE AND
RELATION TO MAN.
The Bird''s Place in Nature:-'' — About thirteen
thousand species of birds are known to science. The
structure of many of these has been carefully studied,
and all have been classified, at least provisionally.
Taken as a whole, the class Aves, in which all birds are
placed, is more clearly defined than any other group of
the higher animals. That is, the most unlike birds are
more closely allied than are the extremes among mam-
mals, fishes, or reptiles, and all living birds possess the
distinctive characters of their class.
When compared with other animals, birds are found
to occupy second place in the scale of life. They stand
between mammals and reptiles, and are more closely re-
lated to the latter than to the former. In fact, certain
extinct birds so clearly connect living birds with rep-
tiles, that these two classes are sometimes placed in one
group — the Sauropsida.
* On the structure of birds read Cones's Key to North Ameiican
Birds, Part II (Estes & Lauriat): Headley, The Structure and Life of
Birds: Newton's Dictionary of Birds — articles, Anatomy of Birds and
Fossil Birds; Martin and Moale's Handbook of Vertebrate Dissection.
Part II, How to Dissect a Bird; Shufeldt's Myology of the Raven
(Macmiilan Co.).
1
2 CHARACTERS OF BIRDS.
The characters tliat distinguish birds from mammals
on the one hand, and from reptiles on the other, are more
apparent than real. Thus flight, the most striking of a
bird's gifts, is shared by bats among mammals. Eggday-
ing is the habit of most reptiles and of three mammals
(the Australian duckbill and the echidnas). But incuba-
tion by one or both of the parents is peculiar to birds,
though the python is said to coil on its eggs.
Birds breathe more rapidly than either mammals or
reptiles, and their pneumaticity, or power of inflating
numerous air-sacs and even certain bones, is unique.
The temperature of birds ranges from 100° to 112°,
while in mammals it reaches 98° to 100°, and in the com-
paratively cold-blooded reptiles it averages only 40°.
The skull in mammals articulates with the last verte-
bra (atlas) by two condyles or balls ; in birds and reptiles
by only one. In mammals and birds the heart has four
chambers ; in reptiles it has but three.
Mammals and reptiles both have teeth, a character
possessed by no existing bird ; but fossil birds appar-
ently prove that early in the development of the class
all birds had teeth.
Thus we might continue the comparison, finding that
birds have no universal peculiarities of structure which
are not present in some degree in either mammals or
reptiles, until we come to their external covering. The
reptile is scale:!, and so is the fish ; the mammal is haired,
and so are some insects ; but birds alone possess feathers.
They are worn by every bird — a fit clothing for a body
which is a marvelous combination of beauty, hghtness,
and strength.
There is good evidence for the belief that birds have
descended from reptilian ancestors. This evidence con-
sists of the remains of fossil birds,, some of which show
marked reptilian characters and, as just said, are toothed.
Plate II
Page 84.
PIED-BILLED GREBE.
Length, 13-50 inches. Summer plumage, upper parts blackish brown ;
throat and spot on bill black ; fore neck brownish, rest of under parts
grayish white. Winter plumage, similar, but without black on throat
Or bill.
ANCESTORS OF BIRDS. 3
It is unnecessary to discuss here the relationships of the
birdlike reptiles, but, as the most convincing argument
in supjDort of the theory of the reptilian descent of birds,
I present a restoration -of the Archaeopteryx, the earliest
known progenitor of the class Aves. This restoration is
Fig. 1. — Kestoration of the Archffiopteryx, a toothed, reptilelike bird of tl)o
Jurassic period. (About Vs natural size.)
based on an examination of previous restorations in con-
nection with a study of the excellent plates which have
been published of the fossils themselves.* Two speci-
mens have been discovered ; one being now in the British
Museum, the other in the Berlin Museum. They were
both found in the lithographic slates of Solenhofen, in
Bavaria, a formation of the Jurassic period, and, together,
furnish the more important details of the structure of this
reptilelike bird.
This restoration, therefore, while doubtless inaccurate
* For recent papers on the Archaeopteryx see Natural Science
(Macmillan Co.), vols, v-viii.
4 DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.
in minor points, is still near enough to the truth to give
a correct idea of this extraordinary bird's appearance.
The Archaeopteryx was ahout the size of a Crow. Its
long, feathered tail is supposed to have acted as an aero-
plane, assisting in the support of the bird while it was
in the air, but its power of flight was doubtless limited.
It was arboreal and probably never descended to the
earth, but cUmbed about the branches of trees, using its
large, hooked fingers in passing from limb to limb.
The wanderings of this almost quadrupedal creature
must necessarily have been limited, but its winged de-
scendants of to-day are more generally distributed than
are any other animals.* They roam the earth from pole
to pole ; they are equally at home on a wave-washed
coral reef or in an arid desert, amid arctic snows or in
the shades of a tropical forest. This is due not alone to
their powers of flight but to their adapta])ility to vary-
ing conditions of life. Although, as I have said, birds
are more closely related among themselves than are the
members of either of the other higher groups of animals,
and all birds agree in possessing the more important
distinguishing characters of their class, yet they show a
wide range of variation in structure.
This, in most instances, is closely related to habits,
* On the distribution of animals read Allen, The Geographical
Distribution of North American Mammals, Bulletin of the American
Museum of Natural History, New York city, iv, 1802, pp. 199-244;
four maps. Allen, The Geographical Origin and Distribution of North
American Birds considered in Relation to Faunal Areas of North
America, The Auk (New York city), x. 1893. pp. 97-150; two maps.
Merriain. The Geographic Distribution of Life in North America, with
Special Reference to Mammalia, Proceedings of the Biological Society
of Washington, vii. 1892. pp. 1-64; one map. Merriam, Laws of Tem-
perature Control of the Geographic Distribution of Terrestrial Ani-
mals and Plants, National Geographic Magazine (Washington), vi,
1894, pp. 229-238 ; three maps.
EELATION OF BIRDS TO MAN. 5
which in birds are doubtless more varied than in any
of the other higher animals. Some birds, hke Penguins,
are so aquatic that they are practically helpless on land.
Their wings are too small to support them in the air, but
they fly under water with great rapidity, and might be
termed feathered porpoises. Others, like the Ostrich,
ai-e terrestrial, and can neither fly nor swim. Other?
still, like the Frigate Birds, are aerial. Their siiiall
feet are of use only in perching, and their home is in
the air.
If now we should compare specimens of Penguins,
Ostriches, and Frigate-birds with each other, and with
such widely different forms as Hummingbirds, Wood-
peckers, Parrots, and others, we would realize still more
clearly the remarkable amount of variation shown by
birds. This great ditlerence in form is accompanied by a
corresponding variation in habit, making possible, as
before remarked, the wide distribution of birds, which,
together with their size and abundance, renders them of
incalculable importance to man. Their economic value,
however, may be more properly sj^oken of under
The Relation of Birds to Man. — The relation of birds
to man is threefold — the scientiflc, the economic, and the
sesthetic. No animals form more profitable subjects for
the scieiitist than birds. The embryologist, the morphol-
ogist, and the systematist, the philosophic naturalist and
the psychologist, all may find in them exhaustless mate-
rial for study. It is not my purpose, however, to speak
here of the science of ornithology. Let us learn some-
thing of the bird in its haunts before taking it to the
laboratory. The living bird can not fail to attract us;
the dead bird — voiceless, motionless — we will leave for
future dissection.
The economic value of birds to man lies in the seiwice
they render in preventing the undue increase of insects,
0 ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS.
in devouring small rodents, in destroying the seeds of
harmful plants, and in acting as scavengers.
Leadino; entomolog-ists estimate that insects cause an
annual loss of at least two hundred milhon dollars to the
agricultural interests of the United States. The state-
ment seems incredible, but is based upon reliable sta-
tistics. This, of course, does not include the damage
done to ornamental shrubbery, shade and forest trees.
But if insects are the natural enemies of vegetation, birds
are the natural enemies of insects. Consider for a mo-
ment what the birds are doing for us any summer day,
when insects are so abundant that the hum of their united
voices becomes an almost inherent part of the atmosphere.
In the air Swallows and Swifts are coursing rapidly
to and fro, ever in pursuit of the insects which constitute
their sole food. When they retire, the Nighthawks and
Whip-poor-wills will take up the chase, catching moths
and other nocturnal insects which would escape day -flying
birds. The Flycatchers lie in wait, darting from ambush
at passing prey, and with a suggestive click of the bill
returning to their post. The Warblers, light, active crea-
tures, flutter about the terminal foliage, and with almost
the skill of a Hummingbird pick insects from leaf or
blossom. The Yireos patiently explore the under sides of
leaves and odd nooks and corners to see that no skulker
escapes. The Woodpeckers, Nuthatches, and Creepers
attend to the tree trunks and limbs, examining carefully
each inch of bark for msects' eggs and larvae, or exca-
vating for the ants and borers they hear at work within.
On the ground the hunt is continued by the Thrushes,
Sparrows, and other birds, who feed upon the innumer-
able forms of terrestrial insects. Few places in which
insects exist are neglected ; even some species which pass
their earlier stages or entire lives in the water are preyed
upon by aquatic birds.
PliATE III.
Page 85.
LOON.
Length, 32-00 inches. Summer plumage, upper parts and fore neck
black and white ; breast and belly white. Winter plumage, upper parts
dark grayish; under parts white.
ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS. 7
Birds digest their food so rapidly, that it is difficult to
estimate from the contents of a bird's stomach at a given
time how much it eats during the day. The stomach of a
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, shot at six o'clock in the morning,
contained the partially digested remains of forty-three
tent caterpillars, but how many it would have eaten be-
fore night no one can say.
Mr. E. H. Forbush, Ornithologist of the Board of
Agriculture of Massachusetts, states that the stomachs
of four Chickadees contained one thousand and twenty-
eight eggs of the cankerworm. The stomachs of four
other birds of the same species contained about six
hundred eggs and one hundred and five female moths
of the cankerworm. The average number of eggs
found in twenty of these moths was one hundred and
eighty-five ; and as it is estimated that a Chickadee may
eat thirty female cankerworm moths per day during
the twenty-five days which these moths crawl up trees,
it follows that in this period each Chickadee would de-
stroy one hundred and thirty-eight thousand seven hun-
<lred and fifty eggs of this noxious insect.
Professor Forbes, Director of the Illinois State Lab-
oratory of Natural History, found one hundred and
seventy-five larvae of Bihio — a fly which in the larval
stage feeds on the roots of grass — in the stomach of a
single Robin, and the intestine contained probably as
many more.
Many additional cases could be cited, showing the
intunate relation of birds to insect-life, and emphasizing
the necessity of protecting and encouraging these little^
appreciated allies of the agriculturist.
The service rendered man by birds in killing the
small rodents so destructive to crops is performed by
Hawks and Owls — birds the uninformed farmer con-
siders his enemies. The truth is that, with two excep-
8 ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS.
tions, the Sharp-sliinned and Cooper's Hawk, all our com-
moner Hawks and Owls are beneficial. In liis exliaust-
ive study of the foods of these birds Dr. A. K. Fisher,
Assistant Ornithologist of the United States Department
of Agriculture, has found that ninety per cent of the
food of the Red-shouldered Hawk, commonly called
" Chicken Hawk " or " Hen Hawk," consists of injurious
mammals and insects, while two hundred castings of the
Barn Owl contained the skulls of four hundred and fifty-
four small mammals, no less than two hundred and twenty-
five of these being skulls of the destructive field or meadow
mouse.
Still, these birds are not only not protected, but hi
some States a price is actually set upon their heads !
Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Ornithologist and Mammalogist
of the United States Department of Agriculture, has
estimated that in offering a bounty on Hawks and Owls,
which resulted in the killing of over one hundred thou-
sand of these birds, the State of Pennsylvania sustained a
loss of nearly four million dollars in one year and a half !
As destroyers of the seeds of harmful plants, the good
done by birds can not be overestimated. From late fall
to early spring, seeds form the only food of many birds,
and every keeper of cage-birds can realize how many a
bird may eat in a day. Thus, while the Chickadees, Nut-
hatches, Woodpeckers, and some other winter birds are
ridding the trees of myriads of insects' eggs and larvae,
the granivorous birds are reaping a crop of seeds which,
if left to germinate, would cause a heavy loss to our agri-
cultural interests.
As scavengers we understand that certain birds are of
value to us, and therefore we protect them. Thus the
Vultures or Buzzards of the South are protected both by
law and pnblic sentiment, and as a result they are not
only exceedingly abundant, but remarkably tame. But
ECONOMIC 7ALUE OF BERDS. 9
we do not realize that Gulls and some other water birds
are also beneficial as scavengers in eating refuse which,
if left floating on the water, would often be cast ashore
to decay. Dr. George F. Gaumer, of Yucatan, tells me
that the killing of iiumense numbers of Herons and other
littoral birds in Yucatan has been followed by an increase
in human mortality among the inhabitants of the coast,
which he is assured is a direct i-esult of the destruction of
birds that formerly assisted in keeping the beaches and
bayous free from decaying animal matter.
Lack of space forbids an adequate treatment of this
subject, but reference to the works and papers mentioned
below* will support the statement that, if we were de-
prived of the services of birds, the earth would soon
become uninhabitable.
Nevertheless, the feathered protectors of our farms
and gardens, plains and forests, require so little encour-
agement from us — indeed, ask only tolerance — that we
accept their services much as M'e do the air we breathe.
We may be in debt to them past reckoning, and still be
unaware of their existence.
But to appreciate the beauty of form and plumage of
* Notes on the Nature of the Food of the Birds of Nebraska, by
S. Aughey; First Annual Report of the United States Entomological
Commission for the Year 1877, Appendix ii, pp. 13-G3. The Food of
Birds, by S. A. Forbes ; Bulletin No. 3, Illinois State Laboratory of
Natural History, 1880, pp. 80-148. The Regulative Action of Birds
upon Insect Oscillations, by S. A. Forbes, ibid.. Bulletin No. 6. 1883,
pp. 3-32. Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds, by F. H. King;
Wisconsin Geological Survey, vol. i, 1882. pp. 441-filO. Report on the
Birds of Penn'^ylvania. with Special Reference to the Food Habits,
based on over Four Tfiousand Stomach Examinations, by B. FI. War-
ren ; Harrisburg. E. K. Meyers, State Printer, large 8vo. pp. 434. plates
100. The English Sparrow in North America, especially in its Rela-
tion to Agriculture, prepared under the Direction of C. Hart INlerriam,
by Walter B. Barrows; Bulletin No. 1. Division of Economic Orni-
thology and Mammalogy of the United States Department of Agricul-
10 ESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS.
birds, their grace of motion and musical powers, we must
know them. Then, too, we will be attracted by their
high mental development, or what I have elsewhere
spoken of as "their human attributes. Man exhibits
hardly a trait which he will not find reflected in the Hfe
of a bird. Love, hate ; courage, fear ; anger, pleasure ;
vanity, modesty ; virtue, vice ; constancy, fickleness ; gen-
erosity, selfishness ; wit, curiosity, memory, reason — we
may find them all exhibited in the lives of birds. Birds
have thus become symbolic of certain human character-
istics, and the more common species are so interwoven in
our art and literature that by name at least they are
known to all of us."
The sight of a bird or the sound of its voice is at all
times an event of such significance to me, a source of
such unfailing pleasure, that when I go afield with those
to whom birds are strangers, I am deeply impressed by
the comparative barrenness of their world, for they live
in ignorance of the great store of enjoyment which might
be theirs for the asking.
I count each day memorable that brought me a new
friend among the birds. It was an event to be recorded
in detail. A creature which, up to that moment, existed
ture, 1889. The Hawks and Owls of the United States in their Rela-
tion to Agriculture, prepared under the Direction of C. Hart Mer-
riam, by A. K. Fisher; Bulletin No. 3, ibid., 1893. The Common
Crow of the United States, by Walter B. Barrows and E. A. Schwarz;
Bulletin No. 6, ibid., 1895. Preliminary Report on the Food of
Woodpeckers, by P. E. L. Beal ; Bulletin No. 7, ibid., 1895. (See also
other papers on the food of birds in the Annual Report and Year-
book of the United States Department of Agriculture.) Birds as
Protectors of Orchards, by E. H. Forbush ; Bulletin No. 3, Massachu-
setts State Board of Agriculture, 1895, pp. 20-33. The Crow in Mas-
sachusetts, by E. H. Forbush; Bulletin No. 4, ibid., 1896. How
Birds affect the Farm and Garden, by Florence A. Merriam ; re-
printed from " Forest and Stream," 1896, 16mo, pp. 31. Price, 5
cents.
PI.ATE IV.
HERRING GULL.
Pages 86, 88.
Length, 24*00 inches. Adult, back and wings pearl-gray ; end of pri-
maries marked with black; rest of plumage white. Young, dark gray-
ish, primaries and tail brownish black.
PETRELS.
Length, 7-50 inches. Black, upper tail-coverts white.
ESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS. H
for me only as a name, now became an inhabitant of my
woods, a part of my life. "With what a new interest I
got down my books again, eagerly reading every item
concerning this new friend ; its travels, habits, and notes ;
comparing the observations of others with what were
now my own !
The study of birds is not restricted to any special sea-
son. Some species are always with us. Long after the
leaves have fallen and the fields are bare and brown,
when insect voices are hushed, and even some mammals
are sleeping their winter sleep, the cheery Juncos flit
about our doorstep, the White-throats twitter cozily from
the evergreens. Tree Sparrows chatter gayly over their
breakfast of seeds, and Crows are calling from the woods.
Birds are the only living creatures to be seen ; what a
sense of companionship their presence gives ; how deso-
late the earth would seem without them !
The ease with which we may become familiar with
these feathered neighbors of ours robs ignorance of all
excuses. Once aware of their existence, and we shall see
a bird in every bush and find the heavens their pathway.
One moment w^e may admire their beauty of plumage,
the next marvel at the ease and grace with wdiich they
dash by us or circle high overhead.
But birds wall appeal to us most strongly through
their songs. When your ears are attuned to the music
of birds, your world will be transformed. Birds' songs
are the most eloquent of Nature's voices : the gay carol of
the Grosbeak in the morning, the dreamy, midday call
of the Pewee, the vesper hymn of the Thrush, the clang-
ing of Geese in the springtime, the farewell of the Blue-
bird in the fall — how clearly each one expresses the senti-
ment of the hour or season !
Having learned a bird's language, you experience an
increased feeling of comradeship wdth it. You may even
12 ESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS.
sliare its emotions as you learn the significance of its
notes. jSTo one can listen to the song of the Mockingbird
without being in some way affected ; but in how many
hearts does the tink of the night-flying Bobolink find a
response ? I never hear it without wishing the brave
little traveler Godspeed on his long journey.
As time passes you will find that the songs of birds
bring a constantly increasing pleasure. This is the result
of association. The places and people that make our
world are ever changing ; the present slips from us with
growing rapidity, but the birds are ever with us.
The Robin singing so cheerily outside my window
sings not for himself alone, but for hundreds of Robins I
have known at other times and places. His song recalls
a March evening, warm with the promise of spring ; May
mornings, ^vhen all the world seemed to ring with the
voices of birds ; June days, when cherries were ripening ;
the winter sunlit forests of Florida, and even the snow-
capped summit of glorious PopocatepetL And so it is
with other birds. We may, it is true, have known them
for years, but they have not changed, and their familiar
notes and appearance encourage the pleasant seK-delusion
that we too are the same.
The slender saplings of earlier years now give wide-
spreading shade, the scrubby pasture lot has become a
dense woodland. Boyhood's friends are boys no longer,
and, worst of all, there has appeared another generation
of boys whose presence is discouraging proof that for us
youth has past. Then some 3Iay morning we hear the
Wood Thrush sing. Has he, too, changed ? Not one
note, and as his silvery voice rings through the woods
we are young again. No fountain of youth could be
more potent. A hundred incidents of the long ago be-
come as real as those of yesterday. And here we have
the secret of youth in age which every venerable natural-
ESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS. 13
ist I have ever met has convincingly illustrated. I could
name nearly a dozen, hving and dead, whom it has been
my valued privilege to know. All had passed the allotted
threescore and ten, and some were over fourscore. The
friends and associates of their earlier days had passed
away, and one might imagine that they had no interest
in life and were simply waiting for the end.
But these veterans were old in years only. Their
hearts were young. The earth was fair ; plants still
bloomeJ, and birds sang for them. There was no idle
waiting here ; the days were all too short. With what
boyish ardor they told of some recent discovery ; what
inspiration there was in their enthusiasm !
So I say to you, if you would reap the purest pleas-
ures of youth, manhood, and old age, go to the birds and
through them be brought within the ennobling influences
of Nature.
CHAPTER II.
THE LIVING BIRD.
Factors of Evolution. — If while in the fields we ob-
serve birds with an appreciative eye, we shall soon be
impressed with the great diversity shown in their struc-
ture and habits. The Fish Hawk plunges from the air
into the water and grasps its prey with merciless talons.
The Hummingbird daintily probes a flower. The Wood-
pecker climbs an upright trunk, props itself with its
stiff, pointed tail-feathers, while with its chisel-shaped
bill it excavates a grub and then impales it with its
spearlike tongue. These birds tell us a wonderful story
Fig. 2.— End of spearlike tongue of Pileated Woodpecker. (Much enlarged.)
of adaptation to the conditions of life, and, knowing that
they have descended from a common ancestor, we ask,
" Why do they now differ so widely from one another ? "
Biologists the woi'ld over are trying to satisfactorily
answer this question, and it is impossible for me to
even mention here all the theories which they have
advanced. However, some knowledge of the most im-
portant ones is essential if you would study the relation
between the bird and its haunts and habits. The Dar-
win-Wallace theory of Natural Selection, in more or less
14
Plate V. 4 5 Page 89.
1 WOOD DUCK. 4 GKEEN-WINGED TEAL.
2 PINTAIL. 5 BLUE-WINGED TEAL.
3 MALLARD. 6 CANADA GEESE.
EVOLUTION OP BIRDS. 15
modified forms, is accepted by most naturalists. As
originally j^resented, it assumed that the continued exist-
ence of any animal depended upon its adaptation to its
manner of life. Among a large number of individuals
there is much variation in size, form, and color. Some
of these variations might prove favorable, others unfa-
vorable. Those which were favorable would give to the
individual possessing them an advantage over its fellows,
and, by what is termed Natural Selection^ it would be
preserved and its favorable characters transmitted to its
descendants. But the less fortunate individuals, which
lacked the favorable variation, would be handicapped in
the race for life and be less likely to survive.
Without necessarily opposing this theory, the follow-
ers of Darwin's predecessor, Lamarck, attach more im-
portance to the direct action of environment on the ani-
mal— that is, the influence of climate, food, and habit.
The effect of the first two I will speak of in treating of
color ; the last we may use to illustrate the difference in
these two theories by asking the question, " Is habit due
to structure, or is structure the result of habit ? " Has
Nature, acting through natural selection, preserved those
variations which would best fit a bird to occupy its
place in the world, and are its habits the outcome of
the characters thus acquired, or have the changes which
during the ages have occurred in a bird's home, forcing
it to alter its habits, been followed by some consequent
change in structure, the result of use or of disuse ? For
my part, I answer " Yes " to both questions, and turn to
our stiff-tailed, spear-tongued Woodpecker to explain
my reply. I can readily understand how the shape of
these tail-feathers is the result of habit, for the same or
similar structure exists among many birds having no
close relationship to one another, but all of which agree
in their peculiar use of the tail as a prop ; the Creep-
16
EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.
ers, Woodhewers, and Swifts, even some Finches and
the BoboHnk, that use their tail to support them when
perched on swaying reeds, have the feathers more or
less pointed and stiffened. Furthermore, this is just the
result we should expect from a habit of this kind. But
Fig. 3— Tip of tail of (a) Downy Woodpecker and of (h) Brown Creeper, to
show the poini;ed shape in tails of creeping birds of ditierent families.
(Natural size.)
I do not understand how the Woodpecker's spear-tipped
tongue could have resulted from the habit of impaling
grubs, and in this case I should be inclined to regard
structure as due to a natural selection which has pre-
served favorable variations in the form of this organ.
I have not space to discuss this subject more fully,
but trust that enough has been said to so convince you
of the significance of habit, that when you see a bird in
the bush it will not seem a mere automaton, but in each
movement will give you evidence of a nice adjustment
to its surroundings. Remember, too, that evolution is a
thing of the present as well as of the past. We may not
be able to read the earlier pages in the history of a species,
but the record of to-day is open to us if we can learn to
interpret it.
This may be made clearer, and the importance of a
study of habit be emphasized, if I briefly outline the rela-
tion between the wings, tail, feet, and bill of birds and
the manner in which they are used. We are in the field,
not in the dissecting room ; our instrument is a field glass,
not a scalpel, and in learning the f mictions of these four
FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.
17
organs we shall direct our attention to their external form
rather than their internal structure.
The Wing. — Birds' wings are primarily organs of
locomotion, but they are also used as weapons, as musical
instrimients, in expressing emotion, and they are some-
.Fi3. 4. — Young Iloatzin, showing use of Looked fingers in climbing. (After
Lucas.)
times the seat of sexual adornment. As an organ of loco-
motion the wing's most primitve use is doubtless for
climbing. Gallinules, for instance, have a small spur on
the wrist or " bend of the wing," and the young birds
use it to assist their progress among the reeds. A more
striking instance of this nature is shown by that singular
South American bird, the Hoatzin {OjAsihocotnus oris-
IS
FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.
tatus). The young of this bird have well-developed claws
on the thumb and first finger, and long before they can
fly they use them as aids in clambering about the bushes,
very much as we may imagine the Arehaeopteryx did.
In the adult these claws are wanting.
Some eminently aquatic birds, as Grebes and Pen-
guins, when on land, may use their wings as fore legs in
scrambling awkwardly along ; while some flightless birds,
for example, the Ostrich, spread their wings when run-
ning.
But let us consider the wing in its true office, that of
an organ of flight, showing its range of variation, and
finally its degradation into
a flightless organ. Among
flying birds the spread
wines measure in extent
from about three inches in
the smallest Hummingbird
to twelve or fourteen feet
in the 'Wandering Albatross. The relation between
shape of wing and style of flight is so close that if you
show an ornithologist a bird's wing he can generally
tell you the character of its owner's flight. The ex-
tremes are shown by the short-winged ground birds,
Fig. 5. — Short, rounded wins and large
foot of Little Black Rail, a terres-
trial bird. (Vs natural Bize.)
Fig. 6.— Long, pointed wing and small foot of Tree Swallow, an agrial bird,
(s/s natural size.)
such as Eail, Quail, Grouse, certain Sparrows, etc., and
long-winged birds, like the Swallows and Albatrosses.
There is here a close and, for the ground-inhabiting
Plate VI.
Page 90.
LITTLE GREEN HERON. BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON.
{Length, 17 'oo inches.) (YoTTNO AND Adult.)
{Lengthy 2 4-00 inches,)
GREAT BLUE HERON.
{Length, 4S'00 inches.)
FORM AND HABIT: THE WING. 19
birds, important relation between form and habit.
Many terrestrial species rely on tlieir dull, protective
covering to escape observation, taking wing only when
danger is so near that it is necessary for them to get
under way at once. Consequently, Quail, Partridges,
and Grouse, much to the amateur sportsman's discom-
fiture, spring from the ground as though thrown from
a catapult, and reach their highest speed within a few
yards of the starting point, while the Albatross is obliged
to face the wind and run some distance over the ground
or water before slowly lifting itself into the air. There,
however, it can remain for hours or even days without
once alighting.
The Frigate Bird, or Man-o'-War Bird, has a body
scarcely larger than that of a chicken, but its tail is one
foot and a half in length, and its wings measure seven to
Fifl. 7. — Frif'ate Bird. (Expanse of wings, 7 to 8 feet.)
eight feet in extent. Having this enormous spread of
sail, its flight is more easy and graceful than that of any
living bird. I have seen hundreds of these birds floating
in the air, facing the wind, without apparent change of
position or the movement of a pinion, for long intervals
of time.
From this extreme development of the wing as a
flight-organ, let us turn to those birds who have not
the power of flight. The Ostrich, Ebea, Emu, and
Cassowary are familar representatives of this group. It
is generally believed that these birds have lost the power
3
20 FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.
of flight, and that as their wings, through disuse, became
funetiouless, their running powers correspondingly in-
creased. This, however, is theory, but tliere are birds
which have become flightless through some apparently
known cause. They may be found among such widely
separated families as Grebes, Auks, Ducks, Rails, Galli
nules. Pigeons, and Parrots.
One of the characteristic water birds of our North
Atlantic coasts is the Razor-billed Auk. It is a strictly
aquatic species, nearly helpless on land, which, as a rule,
it visits on.y when nesting. Its egg is laid in the crevice
of a rocky cliff, frequently at some height from the sea.
During the winter it migrates southward as far as Long
Island. Flight is therefore a necessary faculty, and we
find the bird with well-developed wings, which it uses
effectively. AVe can, however, imagine conditions under
which it would not be necessary for the Razor-bill to
fly. It might become a permanent resident of isolated
islands, laying its egg on accessible beaches. Already
an expert diver, obtaining its food in the water, it would
not be obliged to rise into the air, and, as a result of dis-
use, the wings would finally become too small to support it
in aerial flight, though fully answering the purpose of oars.
Apparently this is what has happened in the case of
the Razor-billed Auk's relative, the flightless, extinct
Great Auk. The Razor-bill is sixteen inches long and
its wing measures eight inches, while the Great Auk,
with a length of thirty inches, has a wing only five and
three fourths inches in length. Aside from this differ-
ence in measurements these birds closely resemble each
other. So far as we are familiar with the Great Auk's
habits, they agreed with those of the hypothetical case I
have ]ust mentioned, and we are warranted, I think, in
assuming that the bird lost the power of flighc through
disuse of its wings.
FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.
21
In antarctic seas we find the arctic Auks replaced
by the Penguins, a group in wliicli all the members are
flightless. Thej are possessed of i-emarkahle r.quatic
Fig. 8. — Great Auk, showinrr relatively Pimill wincf
inches ; of wing, 5 75 inches.)'
( Length of bird, 3G
powers, and can, it is said, outswira even fish. They
nest only on isolated islands, where they are not exposed
to the attack of predaceous mammals.
Among Grehes and Ducks we have illustrations of
the way in which swimming birds may become tempo-
rarily flightless. "With most land -inhabiting birds flight
is so important a faculty that any injury to the wings is
apt to result fatally. It is necessary, therefore, that
the power of flight shall not be impaired. Conse-
quently, when molting, the wing-feathers are shed
slowly and symmetrically, from the middle of the wing
both inwardly and outwardly ; the new feathers ap-
pear so quickly. that at no time are there more than
two or three quills missing from either wing. But the
22 FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.
aquatic Grebes and Ducks, protected by the nature of
their haunts and habits, lose all their wing-feathers at
once, and are flightless until their new plumage has
grown.
It might then be supposed that permanently flightless
forms would be found among the Grebes and Ducks.
But these birds are generally migratory, or, if resident,
they usually inhabit bodies of fresh water where local
conditions or droughts may so affect the food supply that
change of residence would become necessary. However,
on Lake Titicaca, Pern, there actually is a Grebe wdiich
has lived there lon^ enouo-h to have lost the use of its
wings as flight-organs.
Rails are such ground-lovers, and fly so little, that we
should expect to find flightless forms among them when
the surroundings were favorable for their development.
In New Zealand, that island of so many flightless birds,
the requirements are evidently fulfilled, and we have the
flightless Wood Hens. Here, too, lives the flightless
Gallinule, JVoto/'nis, and in this family of Gallinules,
birds not unlike Coots, there are at least four flightless
species inhabiting islands — one in the Moluccas, one in
Samoa, one on Tristan d'Acunha, and one on Gough
Island. The last two islands are about flfteen hundred
miles from Cape Good Hope, and have evidently never
been connected with a continent. There seems little
reason to doubt, therefore, that the ancestors of the
Gallinules now inhabiting these islands reached them
by the use of their wings, and that these organs have
since become too small and weak to support their owners
in the air. Other cases might be cited ; for instance,
the Dodo of Mauritius among Pigeons, and the Kakapo
{Stringops) of New Zealand among Parrots ; but if the
illustrations already given have not convinced you that
disuse of the wings may result in loss of flight, let
PiiATE VII. Pages 93, 94.
AMERICAN BITTERN.
Length, 28-00 inches. A black streak on neck; body brown and buff;
primaries slate-color.
SORA.
Length, 8-50 inches. Adult, upper parts olive-brown, black, and white;
throat and face black, breast slate, belly white, flanks black and white.
Young, similar, but face, throat, and breast white, washed with brownish.
FORM AND HABIT: THE WINQ. 23
me take you tinally to the poultry yard, wliere in the
waddling Duck you will see an undeniable instance of
degenei*ation.
As the seat of sexual characters the wing is some-
times most singularly developed or adorned. The males
of the Argus Pheasant and Pennant-winged Nightjar
have certain feathers enormously lengthened ; the Stand-
ard-bearer has white plumes growing from the wing ; and
there are many other cases in which the wing presents sex-
ual characters, not alone through display, but also by
use as a musical organ. I do not refer to the whistling
sound made by the wings of flying Doves or Ducks, or
the humming of Hummingbirds, but to sounds volun-
tarily produced by birds, and e^-idently designed to an-
swer the purpose of song.
A simple form of this kind of " music " is shown by
the cock in clajjping his wings before crowing, in the
" drumming " of Grouse, or in the " booming " of Night-
hawks, as with wings set they dive from a height earth-
ward. The male Cassique {Ostinops) of South America,
after giving voice to notes which sound like those pro-
duced by chafing trees in a gale, leans far forward,
spreads and raises his large orange and black tail, then
vigorously claps his wings together over his back, mak-
ing a noise which so resembles the cracking of branches
that one imagines the birds learned this singular per-
formance during a gale.
The birds mentioned thus far have no especial wing
structure beyond rather stiffened feathers ; but in the
"Woodcock, some Paradise-birds and Flycatchers, Guans,
Pipras, and other tropical l)irds, certain wing-feathers
are singularly modified as musical instruments. Some-
times the outer primaries are so narrowed that little but
the shaft or midrib is left, as in both sexes of the Wood-
cock, when the rapid wing-strokes are accompanied by a
24
FORM AXD HABIT: THE WING.
hicli, whistling sound. In other cases the shafts of the
wing-feathers may be much enlarged and horny, when
the bird makes a sin-
gular snapping sound
in flight.
If you recall the
supplicating manner of
a young bird as with
nut'urai gently fluttering wings
it begs for food, you
■sWll recognize one of several ways in which the wings
may express emotion. Birds also threaten with their
wings, as any hen with chicks will testify, and from this
Fig. Q. — Wing of Woodcock, showing three
outer attenuate feathers. (V.
size.)
Fici. 10.— Jacana, showing spur on wintr (natural size) and elongated toes ('/a
natural size).
gesture to the actual delivery of a blow is but a step.
Swans, Pigeons, and Chickens can deal forcible blows
with their wings. Screamers, Lapwings, and Jacanas
FORM AND HABIT: THE TAIL. 25
have formidable spurs on tlieir wings, wliicli tliey are
supposed to use in combat.
The Tail. — Except wlien sexually developed, tlie
shape of the tail is largely governed by the character
of its owner's flight. Male Lyre-birds, Pheasants, Fowls,
Hummingbirds, and many others furnish well-marked
instances of the tail as a sexual character. Indeed, as
the least important to the bird of the four external
organs we are speaking of, the tail is more often sexually
modified than any of the other three.
The main office of the tail, however, is mechanical, to
act as a rudder in flight and a " balancer " when perch-
ing. Short-tailed birds generally fly in a straight course,
and can not make sharp turns, while long-tailed birds can
pursue a most erratic course, with marvelous ease and
grace. The Grebes are practically tailless, and their
flight is comparatively direct, but the Swallow-tailed
Kite, with a tail a foot or more in length, can dash to
right or left at the most abrupt angle.
Among tree-creeping birds, which always climb up-
ward, the tail is used as a brace or prop. This character, as
has been said, is possessed by all AYoodpeckers, by the quite
different Woodhewers of South America, the Brown Creep-
ers of temperate regions, and other birds (see Figs. 3 and 4).
The two middle feathers in the tail of the Motmot,
of the American tropics, end in a racket-shaped disk, the
result of a unique habit. Similarly shaped feathers are
found in the tails of some Hummingbirds and Old World
Kingfishers, l)ut in the Motmot this peculiar shape is due
to a self-inflicted mutilation. The newly grown feathers,
as shown in the accompanying figure, lack the terminal
disk, but as soon as they are grown, the birds begin to
pick at the barbs, and in a short time the shaft is de-
nuded, in some species for the space of an inch, in others
for as much as two inches.
26
FORM AND HABIT: THE TAIL.
This singular habit is practiced by numerous species
of Motmots, ranging from Mexico to Brazil. It is there-
fore of undoubted age, and we can only speculate upon
its use and origin. Young birds from the nest, reared
Fio. 11. — Central tail-feathers of Motmot {Momotus gvhruffscens), showing
newly grown feathers (at the left) and results of self-inflicted mutilation.
in confinement where they wei'e isolated from others of
their kind, trimmed their tail-feathers soon after they
were grown.*
The habit, therefore, is inherited, but the mutilation,
although it has doubtless been practiced for countless
generations, has not become inherent, unless we consider
the constriction in the vane of the feather at the place
where it is to be trimmed an indication of inheritance.
The Motmot gesticulates with its tail in a remarkable
manner, swinging it from side to side, so that it suggests
the pendulum of a clock, or sweeping it about in circles
with a movement which reminds one of a bandmaster
flourishing his baton. We shall find in other species,
also, that the tail, more than any other organ, is used to
express emotion. Recall its twitching and wagging ; how
it is nervously spread or "jetted," showing the white
* See Chorrio. The Auk (New York city), vol. ix, 1893, p. 323.
Plate VIII.
AMEEICAN COOT.
Page 94.
Length, 15-00 inches. Head and neck blackish, body slate ; under tail
coverts, tips of secondaries, and end of bill white.
CLAPPEE RAIL.
Length, 14-50 inches. Upper parts pale greenish olive and gray; throat
white, breast pale cinnamon, flanks gray and white.
FOEM AND HABIT: THE FEET.
27
outer feathers, as in the Meadowlark. The tail may
also be expressive of disposition. Compare the drooped
tail of a pensive Flycatcher with the nptilted member of
an inquisitive Wren.
But it is when displaying its beauties that a bird
speaks most eloquently with its taih Can anything ex-
ceed the pompous pride of a Turkey cock strutting in
swollen glory, with tail stiffly spread ? The Peacock
erects his tail in a similar manner, but it is entirely con-
cealed by the train of gorgeous feathers which it par-
tially supports.
The Feet. — As the feet share with the wings the re-
sponsibilities of locomotion, there is often a close rela-
tion between these organs. For example, short-winged
terrestrial species like Quails, Grouse, and Rails have well-
developed feet, but such aerial creatures as Swifts and
Swallows have exceedingly small feet (see Figs. 3 and 4).
The aquatic Grebes and Divers are practically helpless on
land, but the Ostrich can outrun the horse ; while in the
perching birds the foot is so specialized that by the auto-
FiG. 12. — Lobed foot of a Coot, a
swimmioar bird of the Rail
family, ('/s natural size.)
Fig. 13. — Lobed foot of a Phala-
rope, a swinimini,' bird of the
Suipc family. (Natural size.)
matic action of certain tendons the birds are locked to
their perches while sleeping. A webbed foot implies abil-
ity to swim, and we find this character present in all the
28
POEM AND HABIT: THE FEET.
water-loving Divers, Auks, Gulls, Cormorants, and Ducks.
In the wading Herons and marsli-inliabiting Rails and
Gallinules the web is absent, but it reappears in tlie form
of lobes on the toes of the aquatic Coots of the same
family.
Some shore -inhabiting Snijje have the bases of the
toes united bv webs, but the Phalaropes, of two species,
have lobed toes not unlike those of the Coots, and are
true swimming Snipe living on the sea for long periods.
Length of foot is largely dependent upon length of
neck. This is illustrated by the Herons, and is particu-
larly well shown by the
long-necked Flamingo,
which has a foot twelve
inches long. Its toes
are webbed, and it can
wade in deep water and
search for food on the
bottom by immersing
its long neck and its
head.
In the tropical Ja-
canas the toes and toe-
nails are much length-
ened, enabling the bird
to pass over the water
on aquatic plants. I
have seen these birds
walking on small lily
leaves, which sank be-
neath their weight, giv-
ing one the impression
that they were walking on the water (see Fig. lU).
Many ground-feeding birds use the feet in scratching
for food ; Chickens are familiar examples. Towhees and
Fig. 14. — Flamingo, sliowing relative length
of logs and" neck in a wading bird.
(Much reduced.)
FORM AND HABIT: THE FEET.
29
Sparrows use both feet in .searching for food, jumping
quickly backward and throwing the leaves behind them.
Parrots use their foot as a hand. Some Hawks carry
nesting material in it, and all birds of
prey strike their quarry with their
strongly curved claws, which are then
used to carry, or hold it while it is
being torn by the bill. The foot of
the Fish Hawk is a magnificent organ.
The. nails are strong and well curved ;
the inner surface of the toes is set with
sharp, horny spikes, and the outer toe
is partly reversible, so that the bird
gi'asj)s its slippery prey from four dif-
ferent points.
As a weapon the foot is especially
effective, the use of spurs being too
well known to require comment. Os-
triches kick with their feet, and can, it is said, deliver a
blow powerful enough to fell a man.
But by far the best instance of modification in the
structure of the feet is furnished by Grouse. It is an
Fig. 15.— Foot of Fish
Hawk, sliowina: large
claws, and spicules on
under surface of toes.
(Va natural size.)
Fig. 16.— Naked toes of Kuffed Grouse in summer; fringed toes of Kuffed
Grouse in winter. (2/3 natural size.)
unusual case of seasonal adaptation in form. During the
summer the toes of Grouse are bare and slender, but as
30 FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL.
these birds are largely ground-haunters, and most of them
inhabit regions where the snowfall is heavy, the toes in
winter acquire a comblike fringe on either side. Practi-
cally, therefore, Grouse don snowshoes in the fall, and
wear them until the following spring.
The Bill. — Of the four organs we are considering,
the bill is beyond question the most important. We
have seen that a bird may be wingless and practically
tailless, and may almost lose the use of its feet ; but
from the moment the bill breaks the eggshell and
liberates the chick, the bird's life is dependent upon its
services. The variety of offices performed by the bill,
and the correspondingly numerous forms it assumes, are,
doubtless, without parallel in the animal world.
The special modification of the fore limbs as flight-
organs deprives birds of their use for other important
services, and consequently we have a biped which, so far
as their assistance goes, is without arms or hands. As a
result, the duties which would naturally fall to these
members are performed by the bill, whose chief office,
therefore, is that of a hand.
Occasionally it is sexually adorned, as in the Puffins,
several Auks, Ducks, and the "White Pelicans, which,
during the nesting season, have some special plate, knob,
or color on the bill. With the Woodpeckers it is a
musical instrument — the drumstick with which they beat
a tattoo on some resounding limb. Owls and some other
birds, when angry or frightened, snap their mandibles
together hke castanets. But it is as a hand that the
bill gives best evidence of adaptation to or by habit.
Among families in which the wings, tail, and feet are
essentially alike in form, the bill may present great vari-
ation— proof apparently of its response to the demands
made upon it.
All birds use it as a comb and brush %vith which to
PliATE IX.
WILSON'S SNIPE.
Page 97.
Length, 11.25 inches. Upper parts black, buff and rusty ; throat and
belly white, rest of under parts black and buff.
FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL. 31
perform their toilet, and, pressing a drop of oil from the
gland at the root of the tail, tliej dress their feathers
with their bill. Parrots use the bill in climbing, and
its hawklike shape in these birds is an unusual instance
of similarity in structure accompanying dift'ei'cnt habits.
Birds which do not strike with their feet may use
the bill as a weapon, but the manner in which it is em-
ployed corresponds so closely with the method by which
a bird secures its food, that as a weapon the bill pre-
sents no special modifications. In constructing the nest
the bill m ly be usad as a trowel, an auger, a needle, a
chisel, and as several other tools.
But as a hand the bill's most important office is that
of procuring food ; and wonderful indeed are the forms
it assumes to supply the appetites of birds who may
require a drop of nectar or a tiny insect from the heart
of a flower, a snake from the marshes, a clam or mussel
from the ocean's beach, or a fish from its waters. The
bill, therefore, becomes a forceps, lever, chisel, hook,
hammer, awl, probe, spoon, spear, sieve, net, and knife —
in short, there is almost no limit to its shape and uses.
With Hummingbirds the shape of the bill is appar-
ently related to the flowers from which the bird most
frequently procures its food. It ranges in length from
a quarter of an inch in the
Small-billed Hummer {Micro-
rhynehns) to five inches in
the Sijjhon-bill {Docimast€s\
which has a bill lono-er than ^ ^
, , , . . ■, ^ , Fig. 17.-Decurved bill of Sickle-
its body, and is said to feed tni Hummingbird. (Natural
from the long-tubed trumpet
flowers. The Avocet Hummer {Avocettula) has a bill
curved slightly upward, but in the Sickle-billed Hummer
{Eutoxeres) it is curved downward to form half a circle,
and the bird feeds on flowers having a similarly curved
32
FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL.
corolla. In the Tootli-billed Hummer {Androdoii) botli
mandibles are finely serrate at the end, the npper one
benig also hooked, and the bird feeds on insects which it
captures on the surface of leaves and other places.
Among the Woodhewers {Dendrocolaptida^ of South
America there is fully as much variability, which reflects
equally variable feeding
habits. Some species have
short, stout, straight bills,
others exceedingly long,
slender, curved ones.
Mergansers, Gannets, An-
hingas, and other birds
that catch fish by pursuing them under water, have
sharply serrate mandibles, which aid them in holding
their slippery prey.
Some shore birds {Limicolm) use the bill as a probe,
Fig. 18. — Serrate bill of Merfranser, afi.sh-
ealiug bird, i^'/j natural size.)
Fig. 19. — Probelike bill of Wooflcock, showiui? extent to which upper mandi-
ble can be moved. (2/3 natural size.)
when it may be six inches in length and straight, oi
curved downward. It has recently been learned thai
Fig. 20. — Recurved bill of Avocet. C^jz natural size.)
several of these probing Snipe, notably the Woodcock,
have the power of moving the end of the upper mandi-
FORM AND HABIT'. THE BILL.
33
bl-e, wliieh Letter enables tliem to grasp objects vv^hile
probing. In the Avocet the bill is curved upward, and tbe
bird swings it from side to side, scraping the bottom in
its search for food. The New
Zealand Wrjbill has its bill
turned to the right for the ter-
minal third, and the bird uses
it as a crooked probe to push
under stones in hunting for its
prej. The Siberian Spoonbill ^-- ^-?^",^Ji^^/^°'-
Sandpiper has a most singular
bill, which is much enlarged at the end, suggesting a
flat-ended forceps. The Koseate Spoon! all. an entirely
different bird, has a somewhat similarly shaped bill, a
striking instance of the occurrence of the same form in
families which are not closely related.
But probably the most remarkable instance of relation
Fio. 22. — Curved bill of female, straight bill of male Iliiia-bird. (i/, natural
size.)
between the form of the bill and feeding habits u fur-
nished by the Huia-bird of New Zealand. The male of
this species has a comparatively short, straight bill, while
34
FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL.
tEat Of the female is long and curved. The birds feed
on larvae, .vdnch they find in dead wood. The male
hammers and chisels away the wood very much as Wood-
peckers do, while the female uses her bill as a probe
We have, therefore, the singular case of two forms of
the bill arising in the same species as a result of or caue-
ing a corresponding difference in habit.
v
V
PiiATE X, Pages 87, 98, 99.
COMMON TEKN.
(Length, i^.oo inches.)
SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER. SEMIPALMATED PLOVER.
[Length, 6-jo inches.) [Length, d-yj inches.)
CHAPTEE III.
COLORS OF BIRDS.*
The almost endless range of variation in the colors
and pattern of coloration of birds' plmnage lias attracted
the attention of many philosophic naturalists. Why, for
example, should birds from some regions always be
darker than those from other regions ; why should
ground-inhabiting birds generally wear a dull or neutral
tinted costume ; and why should the male, with few ex-
ceptions, be brighter than the female ?
For answer I will outline some of the leading facts
and theories in connection with this interesting subject.
In the first place, however, it will 1 e necessary for us to
have some idea of the extent of individual change in
color, that is, the various phases of color, which a bird
may pass through during different periods of its life.f
* Consult Ponlton, Colors of Animalp (D. Appleton &Co.). Gadow,
in Ilewton's Dictionary of Birds — articles. Color and Feathers. Bed-
dard. Animal Coloration (Macmillan Co.). Keeler. Evolution of the
Colors of North American Land Birds; occasional papers. California
Academy of Sciences (San Francisco), iii. 1893. Also Allen, reviews
of last two works. The Auk (New York city), x. 1893. pp. 189-199,
373-380. Allen, Allepred Changes of Color in the Feathers of Birds
without Moltinjj; Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural His-
tory. New York city, viii. 189fi. pp. 13-44. Chadbonrne. Individual
Dichromatism in the Screech Owl; The Auk, xiii, 1896, pp. 321-325.
and siv, 1897. pp. 33-39. one plate.
f The term color, as here used, means practically the plumage or
dress of birds.
.4 35
30 COLOR AND AGE.
Color and Age. — All birds have a special nestling
plumage. With those that run or swim at birth, such
as Grouse, Snipe, and Ducks, this is a full suit of down,
which may be worn for several weeks. With those
birds which are helpless when hatched — for instance,
Robins, Sparrows, and Orioles — this downy covering is
so scanty that they are practically naked. This birth
dress is followed by a new growth, known as the " first
plumage." Down-covered birds do not acquire this for
some time, but with those birds that are bom nearly
naked it begins to grow soon after they are hatched, and
is almost complete w^hen they leave the nest. The first
plumage is often unlike that of either parent ; for ex-
ample, the spotted plumage of the Robin. It is worn for
several months by some species — certain Snipe and others
— but with most land birds it is soon exchanged for the
costume they ^vill wear through the winter, usually
termed the "immature plumage." This may resemble
that of either parent respectively — that is, immature
males may be like adult males and immature females like
adult females, as with the Bob-white and Cardinal Gros-
beak ; or the immature birds of both sexes may resemble
the adult female, as with the Hummingbird and BoboHnk.
Again, the immature birds of both sexes may be unlike
either of the adults, as with the Eagle r„nd most Hawks ;
or the immature female may resemble the adult female,
while the immature male is unlike cither parent, as in the
case of the Rose-breasted Grosbeak and Scarlet Tanager.
When both parents are alike, the young generally resem-
ble them, and this happens among most of our land birds ;
for example, the Flycatchers, Crows and Jays, many
Sparrows, Vireos, Wrens, and Thrushes.
Immature birds, difi^ering from the adults, may ac-
quire the adult plumage the next spring, as with the
Bobohnk, or they may then don a second or transition
COLOR AND SEASON. 37
plumage, and not assume the dress of maturity until the
second or even the third spring, which is the case with
the Orchard Oriole.
Color and Season. — Quite apart from the changes in
color due to age, a bird may throughout its life cliangc
costumes with the seasons. Thus, the male Bobolink
after the nesting season, exchanges his black, wdiite, and
buff nuptial suit for a spanowlike dress resembling that
of his mate. The Scarlet Tanager sheds his gay body
plumage and puts on the olive-green colors of the fe-
male, without changing, however, the color of his black
wings and tail. The following spring both birds resume
the more conspicuous coats. A more or less similar
change takes place among many birds in which the male
is brighter than the female, but, among land birds, when
the adults of both sexes are alike, there is little or no
seasonal change in color.
The Molt.^ — These changes in plumage, as far as they
are understood, are accomplished by the molt, frequently
followed by a wearing off of the differently colored ter-
minal fringe which is found on the new feathers of some
birds. It has been stated that birds change color without
changing their plumage, either by a chemical alteration
in the pigment of the feathers resulting in a new color,
or by the actual gain of new pigment from the body ; but
I know of no instance in which this has been proved, nor
do I believe that the latter change is possible. The whole
subject offers an excellent field for observation and ex-
periment.
There is a great and as yet but little understood
variation in the molting of birds. Not only may closely
* See Stone, The Molting of Birds, with Special Reference to the
Plumages of the Smaller Land Birds of Kastern North America, Pro-
ceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science, 181)6, pp.
108-167, two plates.
38
THE MOLT.
related species molt differently, but the manner and time
of molting among individuals of the same sjDecies may
vary according to their sex, age, and physical condition.
At the close of the nesting season all birds renew
their entire plumage by molting. The following spring,
before the nesting season, most birds molt their body
feathers, retaining those of the wing and tail. A few,
however, like the Bobolink, have a complete molt at
this season also. Others molt only a few of the body
feathers, while some birds are adorned at this season
with special nuptial plmnes.
The beautiful aigrette plumes of the Heron consti-
tute a nuptial dress ot tuis kind. It is for these plumes
that the birds have been slaughtered in such enormous
numbers that if the demand continues they will speedily
become extinct.
Some birds, whose fall plumage is edged with a dif-
ferently colored tip to each feather, do not molt in the
spring, but acquire their wedding dress by the slow wear-
ing off of the fringes to the feathers which have dis-
October. January. March. June.
Fi(i. 23. — Feathers from back of Snowfiake. showinir seasonal changes in form
and color due to wearing oflf of tips. (Natural size.)
guised them during the winter. The Snowflake, for
instance, changes from brown and brownish white to
pure black and white by losing the brown tips which
have concealed the black or white bases of his feathers.
'•~"****>*«S»p
Plate XI,
SPOTTED SANDPIPER.
Pages 96, 99>
Length, 7-50 inches. Adult, upper parts brownish gray and black;
under parts white spotted with black ; a white patch in wing. Young,
similar, but without black.
KILLDEER.
Length, 10-50 inches. Upper parts brownish gray, upper tail-covorts
rusty ; under parts white ; two bands on breast, crown and lores
black, forehead and nape white.
COLOR AND FOOD. 39
Much remains to be learned on this subject of the
molt, and, although confinement is known to affect its
manner and extent, I believe intelligent observation of
caged birds will lead to really valuable results.
Color and Food. — In some instances it is kno'svn that
a bird's color is affected by the nature of its food. It is
a common practice among bird fanciers to alter the color
of Canaries from yellow to orange-red by feeding them
on red pepper. This food, however, is said to have no
effect upon adult birds, but must be fed to nestlings. Sau-
ermann's experiments, as quoted by Beddard, show that
the red color is not caused by the capsiein or red pig-
ment in the pepper, bat by a fatty substance termed
triolein. Fed to white fowls, their breasts became red,
while the rest of the plumage remained unchanged. It
is also stated that dealers alter the color of green Parrots
to yellow by feeding them on the fat of certain fishes.
Flamingoes and Scarlet Ibises when kept in capti\'ity
lose their Ijright red colors and become dingy pink or
even soiled white, and some animal dealers have acquired
a reputation for restoring their natural tints by supplying
them with food the nature of which is kept a secret.
Our Purple Finch turns to yellow in captivity. An
adult male now in my possession is undergoing his second
molt since capture a year ago, and it will evidently leave
him without a single red feather. Other wild birds
when caged are known to assume more or less abnormal
plumages, due, it is supposed, to change in food. There
is, however, very little exact information on this subject,
and it offers an excellent opportunity for the patient in-
vestigator.
Color and Climate.^ — Color is a nuich more variable
character than form. There are but few instances in
* Read Allen, Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zoology (Cam-
bridge, Mass.), vol. ii. No. 3, 1871, pp- 18^-250.
40 COLOR AND CLIMATE.
wliicli we can sliow tlie cause of a given structure ; but
color I'esponds more quickly to tlie influence of sur-
roundings, and in many cases we can point to cause and
effect with some certainty.
This is best illustrated by the relation between climate
and color. Briefly, it has been found that birds are
darkest in humid regions and j^alest in arid regions.
This at first thought seems of small moment, but in
reality it is one of the most important facts established
by ornithologists. It is an undeniable demonstration of
" evolution hj environment " — that is, the bird's color is
in part due to the conditions under which it lives.
For example, our common Song Sjjarrow, which in-
habits the greater part of IS^oi'th America, varies so
greatly in color in different jjarts of its range that no
less than eleven subspecies or geographical races are
known to ornithologists. The extremes are found in the
arid deserts of Arizona, where the annual rainfall aver-
ages eight inches, and on the humid Pacific coast from
Washington to Alaska, where the annual rainfall averages
about eighty inches.
The Arizona Song Sparrows are pale, sandy colored
birds, while those from Alaska are dark, sooty brown.
One would imagine them to be different species ; but
unlike as are these extremes, they, with the other nine
races in this group, are found to intergrade in those re-
gions where the climatic conditions themselves undergo
a change. That is, as we pass from an arid into a humid,
region, the birds gradually get darker as the average
rainfall increases.
If now we study other birds living in these regions,
we find that many of them, especially the resident species,
are similarly affected by the prevailing climatic influ-
ences— that is, many Arizona birds are bleached and
faded in appearance, while all the thirty odd Northwest
COLOR AND HAUNT AND HABIT. 41
Pacific coast races are darker or more lieavily streaked
or barred than any of their congeners. It is of impor-
tance to ol)serve tliat these differences are shown by
young birds in fresh plumage — evidence that the charac-
ters acquired through chmate have been inherited.
There are many similar cases, but some species seem
more easily affected than others, and throughout their
ranges are markedly affected ly the conditions under
which they live. Thus we have nine races of Screech
Owl, eleven of Horned Lark, six of Junco, etc.
These races, or subspecies, are species in process of
formation. The extremes are still connected by inter-
mediate or natural links, but if, through any cause, these
intermediates should disappear, the extremes would then
be left as distinct species.
Color and Haunt and Uahit. — The relation of a
bird's color to its haunts and habits is a complex sub-
ject. Any attempt at its ex|3lanation should be based on
so exact a knowledge of t\\Q facts in the case, that I can not
too strongly emphasize here the necessity for observations
in the field. Only a close study of the living bird will
justify us in advancing theories to account for its coloration.
Many explanations have been offered to account for
certain colors and markings of birds, but often, I fear,
without adequate knowledge of the bird's habits. I
shall speak of only four classes of colors ; they are
protective^ deceptive^ recognition^ and sexual colors.
Protective colors render a l)ird inconspicuous in order
that it may escape its enemies. Deceptive colors render
it inconspicuous in order that it may more easily approach
its prey. In both eases the- l)ird should harmonize in
color with its immediate surroundings.
A survey of the birds of the woidd shows that on the
whole this is true. Thus almost all ground-inliabiting
birds, such as Snipe, Plover, Quail, Grouse, Sparrows,
42 PROTECTIVE COLORATION.
are generally dull brown or gray, like the ground, leaves,
or grasses about them, while tree-haunting birds, espe-
cially those that live in the foliage or feed from blossoms,
are, as a rule, brightly colored. In this class belong
Hummingbirds, Orioles, the gayer - plumaged Finches,
Tanagers, Warblers, and many others. It is partly
owing to this fact that the erroneous idea concerning
the brilliant plumage of all tropical birds has become
established. The rich vegetation of the tropics furnishes
a home to a far greater number of brightly colored birds
than are found in temperate regions ; still, they are not
more numerous than the dull-colored species that live on
the tree trunks, in the undergrowth, or on the ground,
where, owing to the nature of both their colors and
haunts, they are likely to be overlooked.
Between these two extremes there are numerous in-
termediate groups, most of which conform to the general
law of protective coloration. There are, it is true, excep-
tions, but every close student of bird-life must be so im-
pressed with the dangers to M'hich birds are exposed, that
he can not doubt that the chief object of color is usually
for its wearer's concealment.
The term " protective coloration " has lately received
fresh significance through the studies of Mr. Abbott H.
Thayer.* Mr. Thayer proves conclusively that protect-
ive coloration lies not so much in an animal's resem-
blance in color to its surroundings as in its gradation of
color. Thus he points to the fact that, as a rule, animals
are darker above than below — that is, those parts receiv-
ing the most light are darkest, while the parts receiving the
least light are palest. In effect it follows that the darkei'
upper parts are brightened, while the paler under parts are
* See his papers 'on The Law which Underlies Protective Colora-
tion, in The Auk (New York city), vol. xiii, pp. 124-129, 318-320, eleven
figures.
PiiATE XII. Page 101.
RUFFED GEOUSE.
Length, 17-00 inches. Male, neck tufts long, black; upper parts and
tail gray or rusty, black and buff; under parts white, black and rusty.
Female, similar, but with neck tufts no longer than adjoining feathers.
PROTECTIVE COLORATION. 43
darkened, the result being a nniform color, with an ap-
parent absence of shadow, tending to render the object
invisible.
Mr. Thayer clearly demonstrates his discovery by
using several decoys about the size and shape of a Wood-
cock's body. These he places about six inches above the
ground on wire uprights, or in a row on a horizontal rod.
One of these decoys he colors uniformly, above and be-
low, to resemble the earth about it, or he may even give
it a fine coating of the earth itself. The upper half of
the other decoys is treated in exactly the same manner,
but their lower half is graded to a pure white on the me-
dian line below. At a distance of forty or fifty yards
the uniformly colored decoy can be plainly seen, but
those which are white below are entirely invisible until
one is within twenty or thirty feet of them.
After definitely locating these graded decoys the ex-
periment may be repeated ; but the result will always be
the same. As one slowly retreats from them they will, as
by magic, seem to pass out of existence, while the one which
is colored alike both above and below can be seen distinctly.
One of the best ai-guments for the value of a protect-
ive coloration is the fact that the birds themselves are
such thorough believers in it. Here we have the reason
why — in sportsman's parlance — game birds "lie to a dog."
When there is sufiicient cover, they trust to their protect-
ive coloring to escape detection, and take wing only as
a last resort ; but when cover is scanty, they generally
rise far out of gunshot. Some Snij)e and Sparrows,
however, attempt to conceal themselves even on bare
sand or worn grass by squatting close to the earth, with
which their plumage harmonizes in color.
A sitting Woodcock had such confidence in its own
invisibility that it permitted itself to be stroked without
leaving the nest ; but when a light snow fell, and the
44 DECEPTIVE COLORATION.
bird became a conspicuous dark object against a "white
background, it took wing on the first suspicion of danger.
I could mention many other similar instances, but the
careful observer will soon find them included in his own
experience.
Deceptive, or, as Poulton terms it, " aggressive " col-
oration is perhaps best illustrated by coftimon Flycatchers
{Tyrannidw). Although these birds live in and about
trees, they are, as a rule, quietly attired in olive-green or
olive -gray, and are quite unlike the brilliantly q\q.6., fruit-
eating Tanagers, Orioles, Parrots, and other birds that
may be found near them. Insects are therefore more
likely to come "within snapping distance than if these
birds "were conspicuously colored. In the same manner
"we may explain the colors of Hawks, "which are never
brightly plumaged.
It is well kno"wii that many arctic animals become
vi^hite on the approach of wintei*. With Ptarmigans
this is doui)tless an instance of protective coloration, but
the Snowy Owl, who feeds on the Ptarmigan, may be
said to illustrate deceptive coloration.
Recognition, signaling, or directive colors have, with
more or less reason, been made to include many different
types of markings, of which I shall mention only those
that are conspicuously shown in flight or by some move-
ment. Such are the white outer tail-feathers of Juncos,
Meadowlarks, Towhees, and many other birds, and cer-
tain wing and rump patches, which are noticeable only
when the bird is on the wing. Markings of this kind are
supposed to aid birds in recognizing others of their kind,
their special use being to keep the individuals of a family
or flock together, so that when one starts the others can
I'eadily follow. The theory is open to objections, but
these so-called recognition marks are so often found among
birds that they doubtless are of some use, though their
COLOR AND SEX.
45
*.*
exact value remaiiis ,to be determined by closer obser-
vation. ;'''
Color and /Sfea?^*-.-It is not possible here to discuss at
length the vexed qirfestion of sexual coloration. But, as a
means of directing observation, I present a synopsis of
the principal types of secondary sexual characters, with
some of the theories which have been advanced to ac-
count for them.
SYNOPSIS OP THE SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS
OP BIRDS.
Size.
Plumage. \
Of the body.
Of the feet.
Of the bill.
Color.
I. STRUCTURAL.
Male larp;er than female (usual).
Pemale larger than male (rare).
j iMale brighter than female.
/ Pemale brighter than male (rare),
r Assumption of plumes, ruffs, crests, trains,
etc. : special modification of wing and tail
Perm, -j feathers.
I a. Worn by male alone.
[ b. Worn by both sexes.
Sole or greater development in male of brightly col-
ored bare tracts of skin, combs, wattles, caruncles,
and other fleshy or horny appendages.
Sole or greater development in male of spurs.
Male with more highly colored or larger bill than
female.
Pursuit.
Display.
Battle.
Music.
Special
habits.
II. FUNCTIONAL.
\ By male when similar to or brighter than female.
'( By female when brighter than male.
By male of accessory plumes and other appendages. ■
By male using spurs, wings, bill, etc.
\ Vocal, by male and. rarely, female.
] Mechanical, by male and sometimes female.
Dances, mock fights, aerial evolutions, construction of
bowers, decoration of playgrounds, attitudinizing,
\ slrutlinpr. etc.
I a. By male before the female.
[^ b. Among the males alone.
* Read Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to
Sex (D. Appleton & Co.). Wallace, Darwinism (Macmillan Co.).
46 . COLOR AND SEX.
In explanation of these remarkable differences of fonn
and habit, we have first Darwin's theory of " sexual se-
lection." This is based upon the ardor in love, the cour-
age and rivalry of the males, and also upon the powers
of perception, taste, and will of the female.
The spurs of the male, for example, are supposed
to have been developed through the battles of the males.
At first a mere knob, they were an advantage to the bird
possessing them, enabling him to defeat his rivals. The
successful male would be more likely to have offspring
who would inherit the tendency of their father to have
spurs, and thus, by selection, the unspurred cocks would
gradually be replaced l)y those better armed. This is
known as the " law of battle."
But the bright colors and gay plumes of the cock
have originated, under this theory, through the taste of
the female, who, it is assumed, would be more likely to
accept the attentions of a bird pleasing in her eye than
one who was less strikingly adorned. This has been
termed by Lloyd Morgan " preferential mating."
Wallace has accepted the law of battle as an effective
agent in producing certain characters, but considers it
natural., rather than sexual selection, and he denies the
existence of any important evidence proving female selec-
tion. He therefore attributes many secondary sexual
characters to a surplus of vital energy, which, because of
a bird's perfect adaptation to the conditions of its exist-
ence, can expend itself in the production of bright colors
and ornamental plumes without injury to their owners.
That is to say, AVallace ascribes to the action of natural
selection any secondary sexual character which is of prac-
tical use to the male in conflicts with a rival, but denies
the female any part in the matter of pairing. Darwin,
as I have said, attributes to the female an aesthetic
taste which renders the brilliant colors or display of the
Plate XIII. Page 102.
MOURNING DOVE.
Length, 11 -TS inches. Upper parts olive grayish brown, sides and back
of neck iridescent; breast with a pinkish tinge, belly buff; outer tail-
feathers tipped with white.
COLOR AND SEX. 47
male an attractive sight, infliienciug lier clioice of a
mate.
There is thus a practical agreement in the views of
these naturalists on the origin of those sexual characters
which may be classed as weapons, and this opinion is, I
believe, generally accepted. But the question of female
preference, and its influence on the development of bright
colors and accessory plumes, still lacks confirmation.
Here is an opportunity for every one who can watch wild
birds mating.
CHAPTEE IV.
THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS.*
To the field student the season of migration is the
most interesting of the year. The bird-life of a vast
area then passes in review before him. Though living
in a temperate region, he may see birds whose summer
home is within the Arctic Circle, whose winter haunts are
in the tropics. Who can tell what bird he may find in
the woods he has been exploring for years ?
The comparative regularity with wliich birds come
and go gives an added charm to the study of migration.
Their journey is not a "helter-skelter" rushing onward,
but is like the well -governed march of an army. We
feel a sense of satisfaction in knowing when we may ex-
pect to greet a given species, and a secret elation if we
succeed in detecting it several days in advance of other
observers. We study weather charts, and try to foretell
or explain those great flights or " waves " of birds which
are so closely dependent upon meteorologic conditions.
* Read Allen, Scribner's Miipaziiie, vol. xxii, 1881. pp. 9:32-938,
Bulletin of Nuttall Ornitholo.ifical Club (Can)bndo:e. Mass.), vol. v,
1880, pp. 151-154. Scott, ibid., vol. vi. 1880. pp. 97-100, Brewster.
Memoirs of Nuttall Ornitholofrical Club, No. 1, pp. 22. Cooke and
Merriam. Bird Mijjrafion in the Mississippi Valley (Washinfrton, 1888).
Chapman, The Auk (New York city), vol. v, 1888, pp. 37-39 ; vol. xi,
1894, pp. 12-17. Loomis, ibid., vol. ix, 1892, pp. 28-39: vol. xi, 1894,
pp. 20-39, 94-117. Stone, Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New
Jersey, pp. 15-28.
48
EXTENT OF MIGRATION. 49
Extent of 3Ugration. — The extent of a bird's migra-
tion is, in most cases, dependent upon the nature of its
food. Birds that are resident in one place throughout
the year generally change their fare with the season,
and apparently feed with eqnal relish on seeds or insects.
Those that are dependent upon fruit must migrate far
enough to find a supply of berries, while the insect-eaters
are obhffed to travel even farther south.
Most of the migratory birds of our Western States
pass the winter in Mexico. Our Eastern Sparrows and
our berry-eaters, like the Robin and Bluebird, winter
from the Middle States to the Gulf coast, while the ma-
jority of our purely insectivorous species cross to Cuba
and winter in the West Indies, or continue to Central
America and even northern South America. Snipe and
Plover make the most extended migrations, some species
breeding within the Arctic Circle and wintering along
the coasts of Patagonia.
Times of Migration. — Let us suppose we are about
to observe the spring migration of birds at Englewood,
New Jersey — a few miles from New York city. Birds
arrive here about a week later than at Washington, D. C,
and a week earlier than at Boston.
During January and February, while watching for
some rare visitor from the North, we shall find that Tree
Sparrows and Juncos are everywhere common. Less
frequently we may see Shrikes, Winter Wrens, Golden -
crowned Kinglets and Brown Creepers, and rarely Snow-
flakes, Red Crossbills, and Redpolls will be observed.
These birds are winter visitants, coming to us from the
North in the fall and leaving in March and April.
Of course, in addition to these migratory birds, we
shall see most if not all of our commoner permanent
residents, or the birds which are with us throughout the
year. They are the Bob-white, Ruffed Grouse, Red-
50 TIMES OF MIGRATION.
shouldered and Red-tailed Hawks, Barred and Screech
Owls, Downy and Hairy Woodpeckers, Blue Jay, Crow,
Goldfinch, Song Sparrow, White-breasted Nuthatch, and
Chickadee.
Generally speaking, the birds in the front rank of
the feathered array which soon will invade the land are
those whose winter quarters are farthest north, while
those that winter farthest south bring up the rear.
From February 20 to March 10, therefore, we may
expect to see Purple Crackles, Robins, Bluebirds, and
Red-winged Blackbirds ; birds that have wintered but a
short distance south of us — if not with us — and who
have accepted the slightest encouragement from the
weather as an order to advance. All the first comers
will doubtless be males, this sex, as a rule, preceding the
females by several days.
About the middle of March we may look for the
Woodcock, Meadowlark, Fox Sparrow, Cowbird, and
Phoebe ; their time of arrival being largely dependent
upon the temperature — warm weather hastening, and
cold weather retarding their movements.
Toward the last of March, Wilson's Snipe, the King-
fisher, Mourning Dove, Swamp and Field Sparrows are
due.
Early in April the Purple Finch, White-throated,
Yesper, and Chipping Sparrows will announce their re-
turn in familiar notes, and at the same time Tree Swal-
lows, Myrtle Warblers, Pipits, and Hermit Thrushes vdW
appear. They will soon be followed by Barn Swallows
and Ruby-crowned Kinglets.
The migration is now well under way, and we go
to the field with the assurance of meeting some lately
arrived feathered friend almost daily. Between April
20 and 30 we will doubtless note among the newcomers,
the Green Heron, Spotted Sandpiper, Whip-poor-will,
PiiATE XIV. Page 104.
BED-SHOULDERED HAWK.
Length, 19-00 inches. Adult, upper parts blackish brown and rusty;
lesser wing-coverts bright chestnut; wings and tail black and white;
under parts rich rusty and white. Young, less rusty on back, wings
and tail largely rusty; under parts white, spotted or streaked with
blackish.
TIMES OP MIGRATION. 51
CWmney Swift, Least Flycatcher, Towhee, Purple Mar-
tin, Cliff and Bank Swallows, Black and White and
Black-throated Green Warblers, Oven-bird, House Wren,
Brown Thrasher, Catbird, and Wood Thrush. This
troop surely is not without musicians. In ringing
tones they herald the victory of Spring over Winter.
The season of cold waves has passed, and the birds
now appear with the regularity of calendar events.
From May 1 to 12 the migration reaches its height.
It is a time of intense interest to the bird student, and
happy is he who can spend unlimited time afield.
Some mornings we may find ten or more different spe-
cies that have come back to us, and each one may
be represented by many individuals. The woods are
thronged with migrants, and the scantily leaved trees
and bushes enable us to observe them far more easily
than we can when they travel southward in th(3 fall.
During this exciting period we should see the Cuckoos,
Nighthawk, Ruby -throated Hummingbird, Crested Fly-
catchei'. Kingbird, Wood Pewee, Baltimore and Orchard
Orioles, Bobolink, Indigo Bunting, Pose-breasted Oros-
beak. Scarlet Tan age r, Ped-eyed, Warbling, Yellow-
throated, and White -eyed Vireos, Long-billed Marsh
Wren, Wilson's Thrush, Pedstart, Yellow-breasted Chat,
Maryland Yellow-throat, Yellow Warbler, and others of
its family.
Succeeding days will bring additions to the ranks of
these species, and there will also be numerous small
Warblers to look for, but by May 12 all our more
familiar and common birds have arrived. During the
rest of the month, as the transient visitants, or species
which nest farther north, pass onward, birds gradually
decrease in numbers, and by June 5 we have left only
those that will spend the summer with us.
The migration over, we can now give our whole
6
52 TIMES OF MIGRATION.
attention to a study of nesting habits. As a matter of
fact, the nesting season begins quite as early as the
spring migration, the Great Horned Owl laying its eggs
late in February. In March and April other birds of
prey and the earlier migrants nest. May migrants go
to housekeeping soon after they reach their old homes,
and by June 5 there are few species that have not
nests.
"With birds that rear two or three broods, the nest-
ing season may extend into August. With those that
have but one brood it may be over early in July, At
this time we begin to miss the jolly, rollicking music
of the Bobolink. Soon he will leave the meadow he has
animated for two months, and with his young join grow-
ing flocks of his kind in the wild-rice marshes. His
handsome suit of black and white and buff will be ex-
changed for the sparrowlike Reedbird dress, and in place
of the merry song he will utter only a metallic tink. This
note is characteristic of the season. Day and night we
hear it from birds high in the air as they hasten to their
rendezvous in the marshes.
July 1, Tree Swallows, who nest rarely if at all near
Xew York city, appear and establish their headquarters
in the Hackensack meadows — a first step on the migra-
tory journey. July is a month for wanderers. The nest-
ing season of most one-brooded birds is over ; they are
not yet ready to migrate, and pass the time roving about
the country with their families.
In August birds are molting and moping. The
careful observer will find that a few Warblers and Fly-
catchers have returned from the north and are passing
southward, but, as a rule, August is a month to test
the patience of the most enthusiastic bird student. Late
in the month migrants become more numerous, but be-
tween the " fiights " or " waves " there are days when
Plate XV.
Page 106.
MARSH HAWK.
Length, 20'00 inches. Adult male, upper parts gray ; under parts white
with rusty spots ; upper tail-coverts white. Adult female and young,
upper parts black and rich rusty ; under parts rich rusty and black ;
upper tail-coverts white.
TIMES OF MIGRATION. 53
one may tramp the woods for miles without seeing a
dozen birds.
September is the month of Warblers. They come in
myriads during the latter half of the month, and on
favorable nights we may sometimes hear their fine- voiced
Ueep^ as they fly by overhead. About the 25th of the
month our winter residents, the Junco, Winter Wren,
Golden Kinglet, and Brown Ci*eeper, will arrive.
The summer residents are now rapidly leaving us.
In a general way it may be said that the last birds to
arrive in the spring are the first to leave in the fall,
while the earliest spring migrants remain the longest.
October and November are the months of Sparrows.
They rise in loose flocks from every stubble or weed
field, and seek shelter in the bordering bushy growth.
Should the season prove warm, many of these hardy
seed-eaters will stay with us well into December, but at
the first really cold weather they retreat southward.
This completes the merest outline of the move-
ments of our migratory l)irds. It will be seen that in
reality there are but few periods during the year when
some event is not occurring in the bird world. As we
accumulate records for comparison, and learn to appre-
ciate their meaning, our interest in the study of migra-
tion will increase and be renewed with the changing
seasons.
We have found, in this brief re\'iew, that our birds
may be placed in four classes, as follows :
1. Permcvnent Residents. — Birds that are represented
in the same locality throughout the year.
2. Summer Residents. — Birds that come to us in the
spring, rear their young, and depart in the fall.
3. Wititer Residents. — Birds that come from the north
in the fall, pass the winter with us, and return to their
more northern homes in the spring.
54: MANNER OF MIGRATION.
4. Transient Visitants. — Birds whose siiminer home
is north and whose winter home is south of us. In
traveling from one to the other they pass through the
intervening region as " transients."
Manner of Migration. — The Oriole, who builds his
swinging nest in your elm tree, will winter in Central
America; the Bobolink, who seems so care-free in your
meadows, must journey to his winter quarters in southern
Brazil. But, unless accident befalls, both birds will re-
turn to you the following spring. We are so accustomed
to these phenomena that we accept them as part of the
changing seasons without realizing how wonderful they
are. But look for a moment at a map, and try to form
a mental picture of the Bobolink's route. Over valleys,
mountains, marshes, plains, and forests, over straits and
seas hundreds of miles in width, he pursues a course
through trackless space with a regularity and certainty
which brings him to the same place at nearly the same
time year after year. How much of his knowledge of
the route he has inherited, and how much learned dur-
ing his own lifetime, is a question we may return to
later ; now we are concerned with actual methods of
migration.
Immediately after, or even during the nesting season,
niany birds begin to resort nightly to roosts frequented
sometimes by immense numbers of their kinds, with
often the addition of other species. These movements
are apparently inaugurated by the old birds, and are in
a sense the beginnings of the real migratory journey.
Other birds roam the woods in loose bands or families,
their wanderings being largely controlled by the supply
of food.
During this time they may be molting, but when
their new plumage is acquired they are ready for the
start. The old birds lead the way, either alone or asso-
PliATE XVI.
SPABROW HAWK.
Page 106.
Length, 11-00 inches. Male, back reddish brown and blacli, wing-
coverts slaty blue, tail reddish brown marked with black and white ;
under parts washed with rusty and spotted with black, Fema/e, back,
wings, and tail barred with reddish brown and black ; under parts
white, streaked with reddish brown.
MANNER OF MIGRATION. 55
'i-iated witli the young. Some flj by day, some by night,
and others by both day and night. This fact was iirst
established by Mr. Wilham Brewster, who, in his admi-
rable memoir on Bird Migration, writes: "Timid, seden-
tary, or feeble-winged birds migrate by night, because
they are either afraid to venture on long, exposed jour-
neys by daylight, or unable to continue these journeys
day after day without losing much time in stopping to
search for food. By taking the nights for traveling
they can devote the days entirely to feeding and resting
in their favorite haunts. Good examples are Thrushes
(except the Eobin), Wrens, Warblers, and Yireos.
" Bold, restless, strong- winged birds migrate chiefly,
or very freely, by day, because, being accustomed to seek
their food in open situations, they are indiiferent to con-
cealment, and being further able to accomplish long dis-
tances rapidly and with slight fatigue, they can ordi-
narily spare sufficient time by the way for brief stops
in places where food is abundant and easily obtained.
Under certain conditions, however, as when crossing
large bodies of water or regions scantily supplied with
food, they are sometimes obliged to travel partly, or per-
haps even exclusively, by night. Excellent examples are
the Robin {Merula), Horned Lark {Otocoris), and most
IcteridcB [Bobolink, Blackbirds, and Orioles],
" Birds of easy, tireless wing, which habitually feed in
the air or over very extensive areas, migrate exclusively
by day, because, being able either to obtain their usual
supply of food as they fly, or to accomplish the longest
journeys so rapidly that they do not require to feed on
the way, they are under no necessity of changing their
usual habits. The best examples are Swallows, Swifts,
and Hawks."
While migrating, birds follow mountain chains, coast-
lines, and particularly river valleys, all of which become
56 MANNER OF MIGRATION.
liio;hways of migration. Tlirough telescopic observations
it has been learned that migrating birds travel at a great
heiglit. The exact height remains to be determined, bnt
it is known that many migrants are at least a mile above
the earth. From this elevation they command an ex-
tended view, and in clear weather prominent features of
the landscape are doubtless distinguishable to their pow-
erful vision at a great distance.
It is when fogs and storms obscure the view that birds
lose their way. Then they tly much lower, perhaps seek-
ing some landmark, and, should a lighthouse lie in their
path, they are often attracted to it in countless numbers.
Thousands of birds perish annually by striking these
lights during stormy fall weather. In the spring the
weather is more settled and fewer birds are killed.
Although birds are guided mainly by sight, hearing is
also of assistance to them on their migrations. Indeed, at
night, young birds, who have never made the journey be-
fore, must rely largely upon this sense to direct them. It
is difficult for us to realize that on favorable nights during
the migratory season myriads of birds are passing through
the dark and apparently deserted air above us. Often
they are so numerous as to form a continuous stream, and
if we listen we may hear their voices as they call to one
another while flying rapidly onward.
Some idea may be formed of the multitude of birds
which throng the upper air on favorable nights during
their migration by using a telescope. One having a two-
inch object glass will answer the purpose. It should be
focused on the moon, when the birds in passing are sil-
houetted against the glowing background. At the proper
focal distance they appear with startling distinctness. In
some cases each wing-beat can be detected, and with a
large glass it is even possible to occasionally recognize
the kind of bird.
Plate XVII. Page 107.
SHARP-SHINNED HAWK.
Length of male, 11-25 inches; of female, 13-50 inches. Adult, upper
parts slaty gray ; under parts white and rusty brown. Young, upper
parts blackish brown; under parts white, streaked with rusty brown.
MANNER OF MIGRATION. 57
Observations of tins kind should be made in Septem-
ber, when the fall migration is at its height. On the
night of September 3, 1887, at Tenafly, New Jersey, a
friend and myself, using a six-and-a-haK-ineh equatorial
glass, saw no less than two hundred and sixty-two birds
cross the narrow angle subtended by the limbs of the
moon between the hours of eight and eleven. Observa-
tions made several years later, in September, from the
observatory of Columbia University, yielded closely simi-
lar results.
This nocturnal journey of birds may also be studied
from lighthouses. On September 26, 1891, I visited the
Bartholdi Statue of the Goddess of Liberty, in New York
Bay, for this purpose. The weather was most favorable.
The first bird was observed at eight o'clock, and for
the succeeding two houi's others were constantly heard,
though comparatively few were seen. At ten o'clock it
began to rain ; and almost simultaneously there was a
marked increase in the number of birds about the light,
and within a few minutes there were hundreds where
before there was one, while the air was filled with the
calls of the passing host.
From the balcony which encircles the torch the scene
was impressive beyond description. We seemed to have
torn aside the veil which shrouds the mysteries of the
night, and with the searching light exposed the secrets
of Nature.
By far the larger number of birds hurried onward ;
others hovered before us, like Hummingbirds before a
flower, then flew swiftly by into the darkness ; and some,
apparently blinded by the brilliant rays, struck the statue
slightly, or with suflicient force to cause them to fall dead
or dying. At daybreak a few stragglers were still wing-
ing their way southward, but before the sun rose the
flight was over.
58 ORIGIN OF MIGRATION.
Origin of Migration. — Why do birds migrate ? It
is true that in temperate and boreal regions the return
of cold weather robs them of their food, and they retreat
southward. But many, in fact most, birds begin their
southern journey long before the iirst fall frost. We
have seen that some species start as early as July and
August. Furthermore, there are many birds that come
to our Gulf and South Atlantic States to nest, and when
the breeding season is over they return to the tropics.
Surely, a lower temperature can not be said lo compel
them to migrate. Even more remarkable than the south-
ward journey in the fall is the northward journey in the
spring. Our birds leave their winter homes in the tropics
in the height of the tropical spring, when insect and vege-
table food is daily increasing. They leave this land of
plenty for one from which the snows of winter have
barely disappeared, often coming so early that unseason-
able weather forces them to retreat.
I believe that the origin of this great pilgrimage of
countless millions of birds is to be found in the existence
of an annual nesting season. In ray opinion, it is exactly
paralleled by the migration of shad, salmon, and other
fishes to their spawning grounds, and the regular return
of seals to their breeding rookeries.
Most animals have an instinctive desire for seclusion
during the period of reproduction, and when this season
approaches will seek some retired part of their haunts or
range in which to bring forth their young. Salmon may
travel a thousand miles or more from the ocean, and,
leaping the rapids or other barriers in their way, finally
reach the headwaters of some river where their eggs
may be deposited in safety. Seals migrate with regu-
larity to certain islands, where their young are born.
Even our domesticated Hens, Turkeys, Ducks, and Pea-
fowl, if given freedom, will travel a greater or less dis-
PliATE XVIII.
Page 107.
AMERICAN OSPREY.
Length, 23 '00 inches. Upper parts brownish black ; nape and under
parts white ; breast marked with grayish broiivTi.
ORIGIN OF MIGRATION. 59
tance in search of a place where they may conceal their
nests.
Many species of tropical sea birds resort each year to
some rocky islet, situated perhaps in the heart of their
range, where they may nest in safety. This is not migra-
tion as we understand the word ; but, nevertheless, the
object is the same as that which prompts a Plover to
travel to the arctic regions ; moreover, the movement is
just as regular. These sea birds pass their lives in the
tropics, their presence or absence in any part of their
range being largely dependent upon the supply of food.
But, as in the case of the Warbler which migrates from
South America to Labrador, they are annually affected
by an impulse which urges them to hasten to a certain
place. This impulse is periodic, and in a sense is com-
mon to all birds. There is a regular nesting season in
the tropics, just as there is a regular nesting season in the
arctic regions.
There is good reason, therefore, for the belief that
the necessity of securing a home in which their young
could be reared was, as it still is, the cause of migration.
It must be remembered, however, that birds have been
migrating for ages, and that the present conditions are
the result of numerous and important climatic changes.
Chief among these is doubtless the Glacial period. In-
deed, Dr. Allen has stated, and the theory has been gen-
erally accepted, that the migration of birds was the out-
come of the Glacial period. Prior to those climatic
changes which, beginning in the latter part of the Ter-
tiary period, culminated in the ice age, a warm temperate
or subtropical climate prevailed in the Arctic regions,
and it was not necessary for birds to migrate. Driven
southward by the formation of ice, many species doubtless
became extinct. As the ice receded birds followed it
northward, only to retreat southward each year at the
60 ORIGIN OF MIGRATION.
return of winter. Tims the habit of going north in the
spring and returning in the fall was eventually formed.
As I have said, the existing conditions are the result
of changes which have been active for ages. 'No species,
therefore, has acquired its present summer range at one
step, but by gradually adding new territory to its bi*eed-
ing ground. For example, certain of our Eastern birds
are evidently derived through Mexico, and in returning
to their winter quarters in Central America, they travel
through Texas and Mexico and are unknown in Florida
and the West Indies. Others have come to us through
Florida, and in returning to their winter quarters do not
pass through either Texas or Mexico. This is best illus-
trated by the Bobolink, an Eastern bird which, breeding
from New Jersey northward to Nova Scotia, has spread
westward until it has reached Utah and northern Mon-
tana. But — and here is the interesting point — these birds
of the far West do not follow their neighbors and migrate
south w^ard through the Great Basin into Mexico, but,
true to their inherited habit, retrace their steps, and leave
the United States by the roundabout way of Florida,
crossing thence to Cuba, Jamaica, and Yucatan, and win-
tering south of the Amazon, The Bobolinks of Utah
did not learn this route in one generation ; they inherited
the experience of countless generations, slowly acquired
as the species extended its range westward, and in return-
ing across the continent they give us an excellent illustra-
tion of the stability of routes of migration.
They furnish, too, an instance of one of the most
important factors in migration — that is, the certainty
with which a bird returns to the region of its birth.
This is further evidenced by certain sea birds which
nest on isolated islets to which they regularly return
each year.
Of this wonderful " homing instinct," which plays so
Plate XIX. Page 109.
SHOET-EARED OWL.
Length, 15-50 inches. Upper parts black, buff, and rusty ; under parts
white and brownish black ; eyes yellow.
ORIGIN OF MIGRATION. 61
vital a part in the migration of birds, I have no explana-
tion to offer. We know, however, that it exists not only
in birds but in many other animals. It is this instinct,
aided by the " heredity of habit," which guides a bird
to its nesting ground. The Carrier Pigeon is taught its
lines of flight by gradually extending its journeys ; a
species establishes its routes of migration by gradually
extending its range.
CHAPTER Y.
THE VOICE OF BIRDS.*
Aside from the pleasure to be derived from the calls
and songs of birds, their notes are of interest to us as
their meJium of expression. No one who has closely
studied birds will doubt that they have a language, limited
though its vocabulary may be.
Song. — Song is a secondary sexual character, generally
restricted to the male. "With it he woos his mate and
gives voice to the joyousness of nesting time. In some
instances vocal music may be replaced by instrumental,
as in the case of the drumming wing-beat of the Grouse,
or the bill-tattoo of the Woodpeckers, both of which are
analogous to song.
The season of song corresponds more or less closely
with the mating season, though some species begin to
sing long before their courting days are near. Others
may sing to some extent throughout the year, but the
real song period is in the spring.
Many birds have a second song period immediately
after the completion of their postl)reeding molt, but it
usually lasts only for a few days, and is in no sense com-
parable to the true season of song. This is heralded by
the Song Sparrow, whose sweet chant, late in February,
*See Witchell. The Evolution of Bird Sons: (Maemillan Co.).
Bicknell. A Study of the Sindnn: of Our Birds: The Auk (New York
city), vol. i. 1884. pp. 60-71, 12(j-140, 209-218, 322-332; vol. ii, 1885,
pp. 144-154, 249-262.
62
PliATE XX. ^
Page 110.
SCEEECH OWL.
Length, 9-40 inches. Upper parts gray, or bright reddish brown, and
black; under parts white, gray, or bright reddish brown, and black-
eyes yellow. '
VOICE OF BIRDS. 63
is a most welcome promise of spring. Then follow the
Eobins, Blackbirds, and other migrants, until, late in
Maj, the great springtime chorus is at its height.
The Bobolink is the first bird to desert the choir.
We do not often hear him after July 5. Soon he is fol-
lowed by the Yeery, and each day now shows some fresh
vacancy in the ranks of the feathered singers, until by
August 5 we have left only the "Wood Pewee, Indigo
Bunting, and Ked-eyed Vireo — tireless songsters who
fear neither midsummer nor midday heat.
Call-Notes. — The call-notes of birds are even more
worthy of our attention than are their songs. Song is
the outburst of a special emotion ; call-notes form the
language of every day. Many of us are familiar with
birds' songs, but who knows their every call-note and
who can tell us what each call means ? For they have a
meaning that close observation often makes intelligible.
Listen to the calls of the Robin and learn how unmis-
takably he expresses suspicion, alarm, or extreme fear ;
how he signals cheerfully to his companions or gives the
word to take wing. Study the calls of the Crow or Blue
Jay, and you will find that they have an ap^^arently ex-
haustless vocabulary.
It is supposed that birds, like men, do not inherit
their language, but acquire it. Thus there are recorded
instances of young birds who had been isolated from
othei's of their kind, learning to sing whatever song they
heard. On the other hand, it is said that a bird inherits
its own notes, at least to some extent, and, while it may
not sing the song of its species perfectly, its song will
still be sufficiently characteristic to be recognizable.
There are, however, very few satisfactory observations
on this subject, and keepers of cage-birds have here an
excellent opportunity for original investigation.
CHAPTEE YL
THE NESTING SEASON.*
If you would really know birds, you must study thetn
during nesting time. At this season they develop habits
that you will be surprised to learn they possess. The
humble owner of some insignificant call-note now fills the
role of a skilled musician. The graceful, leisurely Marsh
Hawk gives vent to his feelings in a series of aerial som-
ersaults over the meadows ; the sedate, dignified AYood-
cock tries to express his emotions by means of spiral evo-
lutions which carry him far above his usual haunts; the
Night-Hawk dives earthward with needless recklessness ;
in fact, birds seem inspired by the joy of the season, and
all the brightness of a May morning is reflected in their
voices and actions.
Mating over, there follow the marvels of nest-build-
ing with its combined evidences of instinct and intelli-
gence. In due time the young appear, and the bird, now
a parent, abandons the gay habits of the suitor, and de-
votes every waking moment to the care of its young.
Thne of Nesting. — With most birds the nesting season
is periodic and annual. "With migratory birds it coin-
cides with the season of the year when their summer
homes are habitable. But we might suppose that the
* Read In Nesting Time, Little Brothers of the Air, and other
works by Olive Thorne Miller. A-Birding on a Broncho, by Florence
A. Merriara (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.).
64
PliATE XXI.
BAKRED OWL.
Page 111.
Length, 20-00 inches. Upper parts blackish brown and white ; under
parts white and blackish brown ; eyes black.
MATING. 65
permanent residents of the tropics, where seasonal changes
are less marked, could nest at any time. Nevertheless,
the breeding season in the tropics is as well defined as it
is in more northern regions, and occurs with the return
of summer, or the season of rains. It is therefore at a
time of the year when food is most abundant.
There is an obvious necessity for this regularity. Old
birds can wander over large areas in search of food, but
the young of many species must be fed in the nest, and
their food supply should be both exhaustless and con-
venient of access.
Among our birds, the Hawks and Owls, whose young
are fed on animal food, are the first birds to nest, while
those which feed their young on fruit or insects wait
until later in the year.
Mating. — Birds are ardent lovers. In their effort to
win a bride the males display their charms of song and
plumage to the utmost, and will even enter the lists to
do battle for the possession of a mate.
It is not possil)le to describe here the many pecul-
iar customs of birds during the season of courtship.
It may simply be said that every bird will then re-
pay the closest observation. For the scientific-minded
there is opportunity to secure evidence bearing upon
the theory of Natural Selection ; for every one there is
endless entertainment in the human traits which birds
exhibit.
The Nest. — The first step in nest-building is the selec-
tion of a site. There is almost no suitable location, from
a hole in the ground to branches in the tree-tops, in which
birds may not place their nests. Protection seems to be
the chief desideratum^ and this is generally secured
through concealment. Most birds hide their nests.
Many sea birds, however, lay their eggs on the shores
or cliffs, with no attempt at concealment ; but, as a rule,
66 BIRDS' NESTS.
birds that nest in tins manner resort to uninhabited
islets and secure protection through isolation.
Some birds nest alone, and jealously guard the vicin-
ity of their home from the approach of other birds,
generally of the same species. Others nest in colonies
brought together by temperament or community of
interests, and dwell on terms of the closest sociability.
The material used by birds in building their nest'j.
is as varied as the nature of the sites they select. The
vegetable kingdom contributes much the largest share.
Grasses, twigs, and rootlets are the standard materials ;
but plant-down, plant-fibers, bark, leaves, lichens, clay,
spiders' webs, hair, fur, and feathers are also used, while
in some cases a gummy secretion of the salivary glands
furnishes a kind of glue.
Birds have been classified, according to the manner
in which they employ these articles, as weavers, tailors,
masons, molders, cai'penters, felters, etc.
Sometimes both sexes assist in the construction of the
nest, or one bird collects the material while the other
adjusts it. Again, the female performs the task alone,
aided only by the encouraging voice of the male.
The time of construction varies from one to two
weeks to as long as three months in the case of the South
American Ovenbird, who in June begins to build the
nest it will not occupy until October. The Fish Hawk
evidently believes in the value of a stick in time, and
often repairs its nest in the fall.
Lack of space prohibits a discussion of the influences
which assist in determining the character of birds' nests.
They may be summarized as follows :
First, necessity for jDrotection.
Second, conditions imposed by locality. These affect
both the site and material, as illustrated by Doves, who
nest in trees in wooded countries and on the ground in
PliATE XXII.
Page 112.
YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.
Length, 12-25 inches. Upper parts glossy olive-brown; outer tail-
feathers black, tipped with white ; under parts white ; lower mandible
yellow.
BIRDS' NESTS. 67
treeless regions, and by birds who substitute strings,
cotton, or rags for their usual nesting materials.
Third., condition of the young at birth, whether
feathered or naked. The young of what are termed
'■ prsecocial " birds are hatched with a covering of
downy feathers. Gulls, Ducks, Snipe, Chickens, Par-
tridges, and Quails are familiar members of this group.
Their young can run about soon after birth, and a well-
formed nest is not needed. But the young of " altricial "
birds are hatched pi-acticall}; naked and are reared in the
nest, which is therefore not only a receptacle for the eggs
during incubation, but a home. Thrushes, Sparrows, in
fact all Perching Birds, Woodpeckers, Hummingbirds,
and many others belong in this group of altricial birds.
Fourth, temperament, whether solitary or social.
Hawks, fierce and gloomy, nest alone, while the cheery,
happy Swallows nest in colonies.
Fifth, structure of the bird. The tools — that is, the
bills and feet — of some birds are more serviceable than
those of others. We should not expect a Dove to build
the woven nest of an Oriole, nor a Hunmiingbird to
fashion a Woodpecker's dwelling.
Sixth, feeding habit. In some few cases feeding
habit may determine the character of the nest. F3r
instance. Woodpeckers, in securing their food from trees,
often make large excavations, which it is quite natural
they should have learned to use as nests.
Seventh, inherited habit, or instinct. There seems no
reason to doubt that birds inherit their knowledge of nest-
building, for in several cases where birds have been taken
from the nest and reared alone, they have afterward
constructed a nest resembling that of their species. It
would therefore appear that inherited habit is a fact.
Through it we may explain not only the similarity in the
nests of the sarne species, but also certain habits for
6
68 BIRDS' EGGS.
which we can give, no satisfactory reason. Thus the
Crested Flycatcher's strange custom of using a cast
snake-skin in its nesting materials probably originateJ
with the birds in the tropics, where it is still followed
by nearly related species of Crested Flycatchers. With
them there may be a reason for this habit, but with our
bird, hving as it does under entirely different conditions,
it is doubtless only an inheritance, surviving even when
the necessity for it has ceased to exist.
Eighth^ change of habit. Some birds are influenced
by changes in their surroundings, and alter their nesting
habits when it proves to their advantage to do so.
Chimney Swifts, who have exchanged hollow trees, in
which they were exposed to their natural enemies, for
the comparative safety of chimneys, are good examples.
But a far better one is given by that prodigy in feathers,
the House Sparrow. Is there any available site in which
this thoroughly up-to-date bird will not place its nest?
It has taken possession of even the hollow spaces about
certain kinds of electric lamps, and has been observed
repairing its nest at night by their light !
The Eggs. — Usually, httle time is lost between the
completion of the nesi and the laying of the eggs. The
number of eggs composing what oologists term a full
set or clutch ranges from one to as many as twenty. At
the time of laying, the ovary contains a large number of
partly formed eggs, of which, normally, only the required
number will become fully developed. But if the nest be
robbed, the stolen egg will frequently be replaced. The
lono;-continued laving of our domestic fowls is an instance
of this unnatural stimulation of the ovary. Doubtless the
most remarkable recorded case of egg-laying by a wild
bird is that of a High-hole or Flicker, who, on being regu-
larly robbed, laid seventy-one eggs in seventy-three days !
The eggshell is composed largely of carbonate of lime.
Plate XXIII. Page 114.
BELTED KINGFISHER.
Length, 13-00 inches. Male, upper parts bluish gray ; under parts
white, a bluish-gray breast-band and sides. Female, similar, but breast
and sides with reddish brown.
BIRDS' EGGS.
69
which is deposited in layers. The final layer varies greatly
in appearance, and may be a rough, chalky deposit, as in
Cormorants and others, or thin and highly polished, as in
Woodpeckers.
The colors of eggs are due to pigments, resembling
bile pigments, deposited by ducts while the egg is in the
oviduct. One or more of the layers of shell may be pig-
mented, and variations in the tints of the same pigment
may be caused by an added layer of carbonate of lime,
producing the so-called " clouded " or " shell markings."
While the eggs of the same species more or less
closely resemble one another, there is often so great a
range of variation in color that, unless seen with the
Fig. 24.— Egg of (a) Spotted Sandpiper. (J) Catbird, to show difference in
size of eggs of prfficocial and alt'rieiul birds of same size. (Natural size.)
parent, it is frequently impossible to identify eggs with
certainty. The eggs of prcecocial birds, whose young are
born with a covering of down and can run or swim at
birth, are, as a rule, proportionately larger than the eggs
of altricial birds, whose young are born in a much less
advanced condition. This is illustrated by the accom-
panying figure of the eggs of the Spotted Sandpiper and
the Catbird.
The period of incubation is apparently closely depend-
ent upon the size of the egg, and varies from twelve days
in some Passerine Birds to forty odd in the Ostrich and,
it is said, some fifty in the Emu.
YO YOUNG BIRDS.
Among some species both sexes share equally the task
of incubation. In others, the female is longer on the
nest, the male taking her place during a short period each
day while she is feeding. Less frequently the female is
not at all assisted by her mate, and in some cases — Os-
triches, Emus, Phalaropes, and a few others — the male
alone incubates.
The Young. — The care of the young and their men-
tal and physical development afford us uuequaled oppor-
tunities for the study of bird character. We may now
become acquainted not only with the species but with
individual birds, and at a tune when the greatest demands
are made upon their intelligence.
We may see the seed-eaters gathering insects and per-
haps beating them into a pulp before giving them to their
nestlings : or we may learn how the Doves, High-holes,
and Hummingbirds pump softened food from their crops
down the throats of their offspring.
The activity of the parents at this season is amazing.
Think of the day's work before a pair of Chickadees with
a family of six or eight fledglings clamoring for food
from daylight to dark !
But the young birds themselves furnish far more in-
teresting and valuable subjects for study. None of the
higher animals can be reared so easily without the aid of
a parent. We therefore can not only study their growth
of body and mind when in the nest and attended by
their parents, but we can isolate the young of prsecocial
birds, such as Chickens, from other birds and study their
mental development where they have no opportunity to
learn by imitation. In this way students of instinct and
heredity have obtained most valuable results.*
* Read Lloyd Morgan's Habit and Instinct (Edward Arnold, New
York city).
PliATE XXIV.
DOWNY WOODPECKER.
Page 115.
Length, 6 '75 inches. Male, upper parts black and white, nape scarlet ;
under parts white. Female, similar, but no scarlet on nape.
CHAPTER YII.
HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS.
The preceding outline of the events which raay enter
into a bird's life-history has, I trust, given some idea of
the possibilities attending the study of birds in the field.
We come now to the practical question of identification.
How are we to find birds, and, having found them, how
are we to learn their names ?
From April to August there is probably not a min-
ute of the day when in a favorable locality one can not
see or hear birds ; and there is not a day in the year
when at least some birds can not be found. In the be-
ginning, therefore, the question of finding them is simply
a matter of looking and listening. Later will come the
delightful hunts for certain rarer species whose acquaint-
ance we may make only through a knowledge of their
haunts and habits.
Having found your bird, there is one thing absolutely
necessary to its identification : you must see it definitely.
Do not describe a bird to an ornithologist as " brown,
with white spots on its wings," and then expect him to
tell you what it is. Would you think of trying to iden-
tify flowers of which you caught only a glimpse from a
car window in passing ? You did not see them definitely,
and at best you can only carry their image in your mind
until you have opportunity to see them in detail.
So it is with birds. Do not be discouraged if the
books fail to show you the brown bird with white spots
U
72 HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS.
on its wings. Probably it exists only tlirough your hasty
observation.
Arm yourself witli a field- or opera-glass, therefore,
without which you will be badly handicapped, and look
your bird over with enough care to get a general idea of
its size, form — particularly the form of the bill — color,
and markings. Then — and I can not emphasize this too
strongly — put what you have seen into your note-book
at once. For, as I -have elsewhere said, "not only do
our memories sometimes decei\'e us, but we really
see nothing Anth exactness until we attempt to de-
scribe it."
It is true that all the birds "svill not pose before your
glasses long enough for you to examine them at your
leisure, but many of them will, and in following the
others you will have all the excitement of the chase.
Who knows what rare species the stranger may prove
to be!
From your description, and what added notes on voice
and actions you may obtain, the field key and illustra-
tions on the succeeding pages should make identification
a simple matter.* You should also take into considera-
tion the season of the year when a bird is present, and
not call a summer bird by a winter bird's name. The
dates of migration given in the following pages will be of
assistance here. They refer to the vicinity of New York
city, where, in the spring, birds arrive about a week later
* The piihlishers' liberality has resulted in securing bird portraits
of unusual excellence. Mr. Seton Thompson is an ornithologist as
well as an artist; his subjects are personal friends. Ee has spared no
effort to make these pictures characteristic life sketches, and I ven-
ture to claim that, as a whole, they excel in truth and beauty any
bird-drawings ever published in this country.
A BIRD'S BIOGRAPHY. 73
than in central Illinois or at Wasliington, D. C, and a
week earlier than at Boston. In the fall these conditions
are reversed.
A BlrcVs Biograpliy. — As a further guide to your
observation a list of the principal details which enter into
a bird's hfe -history is appended :
1. Description (of size, form, color, and markings).
3. Daunts (up'and. lowland, lakes, rivers, woods, fields, etc.).
3. Movements (slow or active, bops, walks, creeps, swims, tail
wagged, etc.).
4. Appearance (alert, pensive, crest erect, tail drooped, etc.).
5. Disposition (social, solitary, wary, unsuspicious, etc.).
6. Flight (slow, rapid, direct, undulating, soaring, sailing,
flapping, etc.).
7. Song (pleasing, unattractive, continuous, short, loud,
low, sung from the ground, from a perch, in
the air, etc. ; season of song).
8. Call-notes (of surprise, alarm, protest, warning, signaling,
etc.).
9. Season (spring, fall, summer, winter, with times of ar-
rival and departure, and variations in num-
bers).
10. Food (berries, insects, seeds, etc. ; how secured).
11. Mating (habits during courtship).
12. Nesting (choice of site, material, construction, eggs, incu-
bation).
13. The Young (food and care of, time in the nest, notes, actions
flight).
From observations of this kind, consisting of a simple
statement of facts, you may philosophize according to
your nature on the relation between habit and structure,
colors and haunts, anl intehigont adaptation to new con-
ditions. Beware, however, lest you be led to draw faulty
conclusions from insufficient observation. Do not make
the individual stand for its speeies, or the species for its
family, and remember that one is warranted in theorizing
only when the facts in the case are facts indeed.
TOPOGHAPHY OF A BIKD.
CHAPTER YIII.
A FIELD KEY TO OUR COMMON LAND BIRDS.
"When you have seen a bird with sufficient definite-
ness to describe its color, form, and actions, reference to
the following key will often prove a short cut to its
identity. This key is based only on adult males, who,
because of their song, often brighter colors, and greater
activity, are far more frequently observed than the
females. But, knowing the male, you will rarely, during
the nesting season, be at loss to recognize his mate.
In order to simplify the key, the water birds, Hawks,
and Owls are omitted, in the belief that they will be
more readily identified by reference to the plates.
The use of the key may be illustrated by the follow-
ing example : Let us imagine that you see a Chipping
Sparrow (Plate JLLY) feeding about your doorstep.
You note his size, chestnut cap bordered by white, black
bill, brownish, streaked back, and grayish white, un-
marked under parts. Turning now to the key, you Avill
see that by exclusion the bird belongs in " Section V "
of the " Third Group," and that it should be placed in
subsection " 1 " of this section, which includes birds hav-
ing the." under parts white or whitish, all one color, with-
out streaks or spots." You have now two subdivisions to
choose from — "A. Back without streaks or spots," and
" B. Back brownish, streaked." Your bird falls under
" B," where again you have two subdivisions, " a. Crown
rufous or chestnut, without streaks," and " h. Crown not
rufous or chestnut." Your bird should be referred to
" a," where you will at once find it described under " a} "
as the Chipping Sparrow.
75
76 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.
It should be borne in mind that living birds do not
look as long as they really are. The measurement of
"length" is taken with the bird's neck and tail out-
stretched in a straight line. In life the tail may be raised
or drooped, while the neck is drawn in or curved, making
the bird look shorter than measurement shows it to be.
Remember that the Robin measures ten inches, the House
Sparrow six and one-fourth inches, and the Ruby-throated
Humming-bird three and three-fourths inches in length,
and you will have a basis for comparison.
FIRST GROUP.
BIRDS THAT FEED OX THE WING FOR LONG INTERVALS OF TIME
WITHOUT PERCHING.
(Swallows, Swift, Nighthawk, Whip-poor-will)
I. Size large, length over 9-00 inches ; the spread wings over IS'OO
inches in extent ; generally seen only late in the afternoon or at
dusk.
1. A bird of the air, flying high, often over housetops in cities: a conspicu-
ous white spot in each wing; note, a loud, nasal peent; sometimes dives
earthward with a booming so\xnd ; May to Oct. . Nighthawk, page 118.
2. Haunts, near the ground, not often observed while feeding; call, given
from a rock, stump, or similar perch, whip-poor-ioill, vigorously repeated ;
Apl. 25 to Oct Whip-poor-will, pacfe 119.
II. Size smaller, length under 9*00 inches ; the spread wings less than
IS'OO inches in extent ; may be seen at any time of the day.
1. Plumage entirely black.
a. Length 5-50 inches; plumage sooty black; usually nests in chimneys;
Apl. 25 to Oct Chimney Swift, page 119.
b. Length 8-00 inches; glo.ssy, bluish black; nests in gourds or houses
erected for its use; Apl. 25 to Sept. . . . Purple Martin, page 161.
2. Plumage not entirely black; Apl. to Oct. . Swallows, pages 159, 160.
SECOND GROUP.
CLIMBING AND CREEPING BIRDS.
{Nuthatches, Creepers, Woodpeckers.)
I. Birds without stiffly pointed tail-feathers, that climb either up or
down.
1. Length 6-00 inches; back gray, cap black, cheeks and under parts
white ; note, a nasal yank, yank; a permanent resident.
White-bbeasted Nuthatch, page 180.
FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 77
2. Length 4-50 inches; buck gfray, cap black, a blackish streak through
the face ; under parts reddish brown; note, high and thin, like the tone
of a penny trumpet; Sept. to Apl. Red-breasted Nuthatch, page 181.
S. Length 5'25 inches ; upper parts streaked black and white ; note, a thin
wiry see -see- see-see ; Apl. 25 to Oct.
Black and white Warbler, page 167.
II. Birds with stiffly pointed tail-feathers, that always climb upward.
1. Length 5'65 inches; plumage dull brown and black; size small, bill
slender; an inconspicuous bird who winds his way up the trunks search-
ing for insects' eggs, etc. ; note, fine and squeaky ; Sept. 25 to Apl.
Bkown Creeper, page 178.
2. Plumage with more or less white, size larger, bill stouter, chisel-like,
often used in hammering.
A. Length 9-"5 inches ; head red, back black ; flight showing a large
■white patch in the wing . . . Ked-heaued VVoodpeckfr, page 116.
B. Length 12-00 inches; crown gray; a red band on the nape; flight
showin'T a white patch on the lower back and yellow in the wings ;
often flushed from the ground ; note, ive-y«?' . . Flicker, page 116.
C. Length 6-75 inches ; crown black ; back and wings black and white ;
note, a sharp /)««){; Downy Woodpecker, page 115.
THIRD GROUP.
BIRDS NOT INCLUDED IN THE PRECEDING GROUPS.
{Blackbirds, Orioles, Sparrows, Vireos, Warblers, Thrushes, etc.)
Section I. With yellow or orarge in the plumage.
Section H. With red in the plumage.
Section III. With blue in the plumage.
Section IV. Plumage conspicuously black, or black and white.
Section V. Birds not included in the preceding sections.
I. With yellow or orange in the plumage.
1. Thruat yellow.
A. Throat and breast pure yellow, without streaks or spots.
a. Length 6"10 inches; cap, wings, and tail black ; back yellow; song
canarylike, sometimes utterod on the wing ; flight undulating, fre-
quently accompanied by the notes chie-o-ree, per-cldc-o-ree ; a per-
manent resident Am. GoLnriNCH, page 148.
b. Length 5-lt.i inches; lower belly and wing-bars white; back oli%'e-
green ; frequents the upper branches, generally in woodland ; actions
deliberate ; song loud and musical, uttered slowly, often with pauses :
" See me ? I'm here ; where are you ? " ; May to Sept.
Yellow-throated Vireo, page 165.
c. Length 5-25 inches ; cheeks and forehead black, bordered by ashy ;
upper parts olive-green ; no wing-bars; haunts thickets and under-
growth: movements nervous and active; call-note pit or chack ;
song, a vigorous, rapid witch-e-wi>e-o, witch-e-w'fe-o ; May to Oct.
Maryland Yellow-throat, page 171.
78 FIELD KEY TO COMMOX BIRDS.
d. Length T'io inches ; upper parts olive-green ; no wing-bars ; a white
line before the eye ; haunts thickets and undergrowth ; song, a strik-
ing mixture of whistles, chucks, and caws, sometimes uttered on the
wing; May to Sept Yellow-breasted Chat, page 172.
B. Under parts streaked with reddish brown ; length 5-00 inches ; gen-
eral appearance of a yellow bird ; liaunts shrubbery of lawns, orchards,
second growths, and particularly willows near water; song, rather loud,
we?, chm-ehee-chee, cKer-icee, or chee-cJiee-cMe-chee, loay-o ; May to Sept.
Yellow Warblek, page 168.
C. Breast yellow, with a conspicuous black crescent; length 10'75 inches;
liaunts lields and meadows, largely terrestrial ; flight quail-like, outer
tail-feathers white, showing when on the wing ; song, a loud, musical
whistle ; a permanent resident ilEAOowLARK, page 136.
2. Throat white.
A. With yellow on the sides.
<i. Length 5-50 inches ; rump yellow ; breast streaked or spotted with
black ; tail-feathers marked with white ; note, a characteristic tchip ;
Sept. to May, usually rare or local in winter.
Myrtle Warbler, page 108.
b. Length 5-00 inches ; no black on under parts or white in the tail ; yel-
low extending along the whole sides; back olive-green, iris white;
haunts thickets ; call, an emphatic " Who are you, eh ? " ; May to Oct.
Wiiite-eved ViRKo. page 105.
c. Length 5-25 inches ; tail and wings banded with yellow, showing
conspicuously in flight; haunts woodland; movements active, much
in the air, tail frequently spread; May to Oct. Kedstart, page 109.
B. No yellow on sides.
a. Length G-75 inches ; a yellow line from the bill to the eye ; crown
black, with a white stripe through its center ; haunts in and about
thickets and bushy woodlands ; song, a high, clear, musical whistle;
call-note, chinh White-throated Sparrow, page 143.
h. Length 4-00 inches ; a yellow, or yellow and orange crown-patch, bor-
dered by black ; flits restlessly about outer limbs of trees and bushes ;
note, a fine ti-ti ; Oct. to Apl. Golden-crowned Kinglet, page. 181.
■ 3. Throat neither yellow nor white.
A. Length 12-00 inches ; white rump and yellow in wings showing con-
spicuously in flight ; a black breast-band ; note, a loud Ic'fie-yer.
Flicker, page 116.
B. Length 9-00 inches ; crested : breast ashy, belly yellow ; tail-feathers
largely pale brownish red ; haunts upper branches in woodland ; note,
a loud questioning or grating whistle ; May to Sept.
Crested Flycatcher, page 123.
C. Length 7-50 inches ; throat and head black ; breast, belly, and lower
back deep orange; haunts fruit and shade trees; song, a loud, ringing
whistle; May to Sept Baltimore Oriole, page 131.
I). Length 7'20 inches ; crested ; grayish brown ; a black line through
the eye ; tail tipped with yellow ; generally seen in small flocks ; note
thin and weak Cedar Waxwing, page 101.
FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 79
H. With red in the plumage.
1. With red on the under parts.
A. Throat red.
a. Length 7'25 inches; wings and tail black; rest of plumage bright
scarlet ; call-note, chip-chirr ; May to Sept.
Scarlet Tanager, page 150.
b. Length 6-20 inches; dull, pinkish red, wings and tail brownish ; fre-
quently seen feeding on buds or blossoms; call-note, a sharp chink,
often uttered during flight ; song, a sweet, flowing warble.
Purple Finch, page 149.
c. Length (;"20 inches ; dull red or green tinged with red; mandibles
crossed; generally seen in flocks; feeds on pine cones.
Am. Crossbill, page 147.
d. Length 5'30 inches; a red crown-cap; back streaked black and
brown ; breast rosy ; feeds on seeds or catkins ; Nov. to Mch.
Kedpoll, page 14t).
£. Throat black.
a. Length S'OO inches; breast rose-red, rest of plumage black and
white; song loud and musical; caW note, peek; May to Sept.
KosE-BREASTED Grosbeak, page 150.
b. Length 800 inches ; a conspicuous crest ; region about the base of
the bill black ; rest of the plumage and bill red ; song, a clear
whistle ; resident from New York city southward.
Cardinal, page 153.
c. Length 5'40 inches ; wings and tail banded with orange-red, showing
conspicuously in flight: movements active; much in the air; tail
frequently spread ; haunts woodland ; May to Oct.
Redstart, page 169.
2. No red on the under parts.
A. Length 9-50 inches; black; shoulders red ; haunts marshes; migrates
in flocks; Mch. to Oct Eed-winged Blackbird, page 132.
Ji. Length 5-25 inches: crown-cap red; chin black; rest of under parts
streaked with blackish ; feeds on seeds and catkins; Nov. to Mch.
Kedpoll (im.), page 146.
C. Length 4-00 inches; under parts whitish; back olive-green; a ruby
crown-patch; eye-ring white; movements restless, wings flitted nerv-
ously ; call-note, cack ; song remarkably loud and musical ; Sept. and
Oct.; Apl. and May Ruby-crowned Kinglet, page 182.
ill. With blue in the plumage.
A. Length 11-50 inches; a conspicuous crest; upper parts dull blue;
under parts whitish ; a black patch on the breast.
Blue Jay, page ISO.
B. Length 7-00 inches; upper parts bright blue; under parts cinnamon-
brown Bluebird, page 186.
C. Length 550 inches ; entire plumage indigo-blue ; May to Oct.
Indigo Bunting, page 152.
D. Length 13-00; bluish gray; haunts near water; feeds on tish, which
it catches by darting on them at the surface . Ki.ngfisiiku, page 114.
80 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.
IV. Plumage conspicuously black, or black and whitOt
1. Black and wliite birds.
A. Throat black.
a. LeniTth over 6 00 inches.
a». Entire under parts black; nape buffy; rump white; a musical
dweller of fields and meadows; frequently sings on the wing; May
to Sept Bobolink, page 134.
a'. Breaat rose-red; rest of the plumage black and white; song
rapid, loud and musical ; call-note, peek; a tree dweller in rather
open woodland ; May to Sept.
RosE-BREASTEn Grosbeak, page 150,
a*. Sides reddish brown ; rest of the plumage black and white ; call-
note, chewink or towhhe; inhabits the undergrowth ; often seen on
ground scratching among fallen leaves ; Apl. 25 to Oct.
TowuEE, page 151.
b. Length under 6-00 inches.
i'. Crown black; cheeks white; back ashy; unstreaked; CRW,chicTc-
a-dee^ or a musical, double-noted whistle; a permanent resident.
Chickadee, page 179.
B. Throat and other parts white or whitish.
a. Length 8-50 inches ; upper parts blackish slate-color; tail tipped with
white; a bird of the air, catching its insect food on the wing, and
occasionally sallying forth from its exposed perch in pursuit of a pass-
ing Crow ; note, an unmusical, steely chatter , May to Sept.
Kingbird, page 122.
b. Length 6-90 inches: upper parts washed with rusty; generally seen
in Hocks: terrestrial ; Wov. to Mch Snowflake, page 147.
2. No white in the plumage.
A. Length 19-00 inches; jet black Am. Crow, page 128.
B. Length 12-00 inches; black with metallic reflections ; iris yellowish;
migrates in flocks; nests usually in colonies in coniferous trees; voice
cracked and reedy; tail "keeled" in short flights; a walker; Mch. to
Nov Purple Grackle, page 133.
0. Length 9-50 inches; shoulders red; haunts marshes; call, kong-qu'er-
ree\ Mch. to Oct Red-winged Blackbird, page 132.
D. Length 7-90 inches; head and neck cott'ee-brown ; frequently seen on
the ground near cattle; Mch. to Nov Cowbird, page 137.
y. Birds not included in the preceding sections 'that is,
plumage without either yellow, orange, red, or blue;
not conspicuously black, or black and white).
1. Under parts white or whitish, all one color, without streaks or spots.
A. Back ivithout streaks or spots.
a. Back olive-green ; gleaners, exploring the foliage for food or flitting
about the outer branches.
a>. Length 6-25 inches; » white line over the eye bordered by a nar-
row black one ; cap gray : iris red : song, arambling recitative : " You
see it — you know it — do you hear me 1 " etc. ; May to Oct.
Eed-eyed Vibeo, page 104.
FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 81
a*. Length 5'75 inches; a white line over the eye not bordered by
black ; prefers the upper branches of rows of ehiis and other shade
trees ; song, a rich, unbroken warble with an alto undertone ; May
to Sept Wakbling Vikeo, page 165.
a'. Length 4-00 inches; no white line over the eye; eye-ring and
wing-bars white; a tiny, unsuspicious bird; tlits about the outer
brandies of trees and slirubs; wings twitched nervously; note,
cack-^ song, a remarkably loud, musical whistle; Sept. and Oct.;
Apl. and May Ruby-crowned Kinglet, page 182.
b. Back olive-green or dusky olive; flycatchers who capture their prey
on the wing by darting for it, and while perching are quiet and erect.
5». Length 7'00 inches; frequently found nesting under bridges or
about buildings; crown blackish; tail wagged nervously; note.s,
pee, pee, and peivit-pk(xbe\ Mch. to Oct. . . . Phcebe, page 124.
S». Length 6-50 inches; haunts wooded growths; note, a plaintive
pee-a-wee; Mny to Sept Wood Pe wee, page 126.
bK Length 5-40 inches; haunts orchards, lawns, and open woodlands;
note, chebec, ckebec Least Flycatcher, page 125.
e. Back gray or bluish gray.
c». Length 6-50 inches ; a gray, crested bird ; forehead black ; no white
in the tail; note, a whistled peto,peto, or hoarse de-de-de-de\ resi-
dent from New York city southward . . Tufted Tit, page 180.
c*. Length 8-50 inches; a white band at the end of the tail; a con-
cealed orange-red crest; a bird of the air, catching its insect food
on the wing, and occasionally sallying forth from its exposed perch
in pursuit of a passing Crow; note, an unmusical, steely chatter;
May to Sept Kingbird, page 122.
d. Back brown.
d^. Length 5-00 inches; a nervous, restless, excitable bird; tail often
carried erect; song sweet, rapid and rippling, delivered with aban-
don; Apl. 25 to Oct House Wren, page 175.
<i». Length 12-25 inches; slim, brownish birds with long tails; flight
short and noiseless ; perch in a tree, not in an exposed position ;
note, tut-tut, cluck-clnck, and cotv-coto; May to Oct.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Blackbilled Cuckoo, pages 112, 113.
B. Back brownish, streaked.
a. Crown rufous or chestnut without streaks.
a>. Length 525 inches; bill black; a whitish line over the eye; a
familiar bird of lawns and door-yards ; song, a monotonous chippy-
cMppy-chippy: Apl. to Nov. . . Chipping Sparrow, page 142.
a*. Length 5'70 inches; bill reddish brown, back rufous or rufous-
brown; wing-bars and eye-ring whitish; haunts dry, bushy fields
and pastures; song, a musical, plaintive cher-ivee, cher-wee, cher-
wee, cheeo, dte-dee-dee-dee; Apl. to Nov. Field Sparrow, page 140.
a*. Length 5-90 inches; forehead black; crown and wings chestnut-
rufous ; flanks pale grayish brown ; haunts marshes ; song, a rapidly
repeated tceet-weet-weet, etc. ; Mch. to Nov.
Swamp Sparrow, page 139,
82 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.
b. Crown not rufous or chestnut,
5». Len;<th 6-75 inches; crown blackish, with a central whitish stripe;
throat white ; breast gray ; a yellow spot before the eye ; haunts
in and about thickets and bushy woodlands; song, a high, clear,
musical whistle ; call-note, chink.
White-throateu Sparrow, page 143.
b'. Length 5-20 inches; bill slender; a white line over the eye;
tail carried erect ; haunts reedy marshes ; call-note scolding :
song rippling; May to Oct.
Long-billed Marsh Wren, page 177.
2. Under parts white or whitish, streaked or spotted.
A. Back streaked.
a. Length 6'10 inches ; outer tail-feathers white, showing conspicuously
when the bird Hies; haunts dry lields and roadsides; song musical ;
Apl. to Nov Vesper Sparrow, page 141.
b. Outer tail-feathers 7iot white.
i*. Length 6'30 inches ; breast with numerous spots tending to form
one large spot in its center: haunts on or near the ground, generally
in the vicinity of bushes; call-note, chimp; song musical; a per-
manent resident Song Sparrow, page 138.
J*. Length 6-35 inches; breast gi'ayish with one spot in its center;
Oct. to Apl Tree Sparrow, page 146.
B. Back not streaked; breast spotted.
a. Length 11-40 inches; tail 5-00 inches; wing-bars white: upper parts,
wings, and tail bright cinnamon-brown ; haunts undergrowth ; sings
from an exposed and generally elevated position ; song loud, striking,
and continuous ; Apl. 25 to Oct. . . Brown Thrasher, page 175.
b. Length under 9-00 inches; tail under 300 inches; no wing-bars;
back reddish or cinnarnor -broivn.
6». Length 8-25 inches; breast and sides heavily marked with large,
rounds black spots; head and upper back brighter than lower back
and tail ; call-note, a sharp j)it or liquid quirt ; May to Oct.
Wood Thrush, page 184.
b\ Length 7'15 inches; breast with wedge-shaped black spots; sides
unspotted, washed with brownish ashy: tail reddish brown, brighter
than back; call-note, a low chuck; Apl. 10 to May 10; Oct. and
Nov Hermit Thrush, page 185.
b*. Length 7-50 inches ; upper breast lightly spotted with small, wedge-
shaped, brownish spots ; tail the same color as tiie back ; sides ivhite ;
call-note, a clearly whistled wheeu; May to Sept.
Wilson's Thrush, page 183.
c. Length under 9-00 inches ; tail under 300 inches ; no wing-bars ; back
olive-green.
ci. Length 6-10 inches; center of crown pale brownish bordered by
black; haunts on or near the ground in woodland; a walker;
song, a ringing crescendo, teacher, teacher, teacher, TEACHER,
r^.^CiM'/i': .May to Sept.. ... ,. ... Oven-bird, page 170.
FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 83
3. Under parts not white or wliitish, all one color, witJioitt streaks.
A. Length 8-50 inches ; slate-color : cap and tail black ; inhabits the
lower growth ; call-note, nasal ; song highly musical and varied; Apl.
25 to Oct Catbird, page 173.
B. Length 7"20 inches; grayish brown; conspicuously crested; a black
line through the eye; tail tipped with yellow; generally seen in small
flocks ; note thin and weak Cedar Waxwing, page IGl.
C. Length 5'50 inches; under parts cream-buff; a conspicuous. whitish
line over the eye; upper parts reddish brown; movements active; tail
carried erect ; liaunts lower growth ; notes loud and striking; resident
from New York city southward .... Carolina Wren, page 177.
4. Throat and upper breast black or slate-color, very different from the
white or chestnut belly.
A. Throat black.
a. Belly and rump chestnut; head, wings, and tail black; length l-.'.O
inches; haunts orchards and shade trees; song highly musical ; May
to Sept Orchard Oriole, page 13;i.
h. Belly white; sides reddish brown; tail black and white; length 8-35
inches; haunts undergrowths ; call-note, cheivink or towhee; Apl. 25
to Oct Towhee, page 151.
j6. Throat slatc-color.
a. Back and wings slate-color; outer tail-feathers and belly white;
length 6-25 inches; haunts generally on or near the ground about
shrubbery ; Oct. to Apl Jvnco, page 145.
5. Throat streaked with black and white ; rest of under parts reddish brown ;
upper parts grayish slate-color; length 10-00 inches . Robin, page 186.
OUR COMMON BIRDS.
THE WATER BIEDS.
DIVING BIRDS. (ORDER PYGOPODES.)
Grebes. (Family Podicipid^.)
The study of \rater birds requires special advantages
and equipments, among which are a suitable location,
much time, and a gun. Our coasts and shores are be-
coming so popular as " resorts " that many of the former
haunts of waterfowl are now thickly populated, and the
birds are comparatively rare. Furthermore, the larger
number of our water birds nest in the far North and
winter in the South, visiting the Middle States only while
on their migrations. It is evident, therefore, that if we
would become famiUar with these birds, we must devote
ourselves especially to their pursuit.
There are, however, some species, notably those which
frequent bodies of fresh water and nest in this latitude,
Pied-biUed Grebe, ^'^"^h deserve to be ranked among our
Podiiymbus podiceps. commoncr birJs. Of these, one of the
Plate II. jjgg^. ijnown, by name at least, is the
Pied-billed Grebe, whose aquatic powers have given it
the expressive title of Hell-diver,
Under favorable conditions this little Grebe may breed
anywhere from the Argentine Republic to British Amer-
ica, but in the Middle States it occurs chiefly as a spring
and fall migrant. When nesting, a quiet, reedy pond or
lake is chosen for a home, the nest 1 eing made on a pile
of decaying vegetation. The eggs, four to eight in num-
ber, are dull white, more or less stained by the nesting
material, which the parent bird rarely fails to place over
84
PliATE XXV.
Page 116.
RED-HEADED WOODPECKER.
Length, 9*75 inches. Adult, whole head and neck deep red, back and
tail black ; upper tail-coverts, greater part of secondaries, and belly
white. Young, similar, but head, back, throat, and sides grayish
black.
LOON. 85
them when leaving the nest. The young are born covered
with down and can swim at birth. The Pied-billed
Grebe is one of our most aquatic birds. When pursued,
it prefers diving to flight, and the marvelous rapidity
with which it can disappear from the surface of the
water, to reappear in a quite unexpected place, justifies
its reliance on its own natatorial powers. It can swim
under water with only its bill exposed, when it becomes
practically invisible.
When on land Grebes progress awkwardly. They
can, it is said, stand erect on their toes, but, when resting,
support themselves on the whole length of the foot or
tarsus (see Fig. 8, the Great Auk).
On the wing Gi'ebes resemble small Ducks, but their
pointed bill and their feet sti-etched out behind the rudi-
mentary tail will serve to distinguish them.
LooNS. (Family Urinatorid^.)
The Loon, like its small relative the Grebe, is known
to almost every one by name, but only those mIio have
Loon visited its summer haunts among the
TJrinator imher. Northern lakcs and heard its wild call
riate III. ^^^ jjg gg^j^ ^Q know it. Nuttall writes
of its cry as "the sad and wolfish call of the solitary
Loon, which, like a dismal echo, seems slowly to invade
the ear, and, rising as it procee^ls, dies away in the air."
It "may be heard sometimes for two or three miles, when
the bird itself is in\nsible, or reduced almost to a speck
in the distance." The Loon is as aquatic in habits as the
Grebe, but is much stronger on the wing. It migrates
by day, and probably also by night, and we may some-
times see it passing over — a large, ducklike bird — in
March and October.
When on land, it is nearly helpless, progressing awk-
86 HERRING GULL.
wardly by the use of feet, wings, and bill. For this rea-
son it nests near the water s edge, often where it can
slide from the eggs directly into its true element. The
nest is a slight depression in the earth, in which are laid
two elliptical eggs, in color olive-brown, slightly spotted
with blackish.
LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS. (ORDER LONGIPENNES.)
Gulls and Terns. (Family Larid^.)
No birds are more widely distributed than the Gulls
and Terns, Some species are pelagic, visiting the land
„ . „ „ only at long intervals and when nest-
Hemng Gull, "^ °
Larmargeutatus ing ; Others live along the coast, and
smithsonianm. several specics rcsort to inland waters.
Plate IV. About one hundred species are known,
fifty being Gulls and fifty Terns, The former are, as a'
rule, larger, stouter birds than the latter, and, generally
speaking, are more maritime. The commonest of the ten
species found in the Eastern States is the Herring Gull,
It nests from Maine northward, and is found southward
along our coast from October 1 to April, This is the
Gull we see in such numbers in our bays and harbors,
fiying gracefully and apparently aimlessly about, but in
reality ever keeping its bright black eyes fixed on the
water in search of some floating morsel, which it deftly
picks from the surface. It frequently follows vessels,
hanging over the stern day after day, and deserting its
post only to feed on scraps thrown overboard from the
galley. There are said to be rehable records of these
birds following the same vessel from the Irish coast to
New York Harbor.
Gulls do excellent service in devouring much refuse
that would otherwise be cast ashore to decay ; but, useful
Plate XXVI. Page 116.
FLICKEE.
Length, 12-00 inches. Male, crown gray, nape scarlet, back brownish
and black, rump white ; under surface of wings and tail yellow ; sides
of throat and breast-patch black ; belly spotted with black. Female,
similar, but no black on sides of throat.
COMMON TERN. 87
as they are as scavengers, I feel that their place in Kature
is to animate the barren wastes of the sea. How, when
at sea, the presence of a single Gull changes the whole
aspect of Nature ! The great expanse of water, which
hefore was oppressive in its dreaiy lifelessness, is trans-
formed by the white-winged Gulls into a scene of rare
]>eantj. Every voyager, be he naturahst or not, admires
their grace of form and motion. They seem born of the
waves, and as much a part of the ocean as the foamy
whitecaps themselves.
The beautiful Terns or Sea Swallows are even more
graceful than the Gulls. They are slenderer birds, lighter
Common Tern ^^^^ more active on the wing, with long,
sterna Mr undo. forked tails and pointed bills. They
Plate X. arrive from the South in May and re-
main until September, nesting in colonies.
Terns are littoral rather than pelagic, seldom being
found far from the shore. Like the Gulls, they seem so
in harmony with their surroundings that no coast view is
perfect from which the Terns are missing. They add
the requisite touch of life, and make still more impressive
the thunder of the surf dashing over rocks or curling in
long, combing waves on the beach.
During recent years these birds have been killed in
such numbers for millinery purposes that on the middle
Atlantic coast the only survivors exist on three or four
uninhabited islets. If one protests against the merciless
destruction of these exquisite creatures the excuse is,
" AY ell, what good are they ? " — an answer betraying such
an utter lack of appreciation of beauty that explanation
seems hopeler-s. But can we not learn, before it is toe
late, that these birds are even more deserving of protec*
tion than the works of art we guard so zealously ?
88 PETRELS.
TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS. (ORDER TUBINARES.)
Petrels. (Family Procellariid^.)
Petrels, or "Mother Carey's Chickens," are true chil-
dren of the sea. Their home is the ocean, and they come
to land only when nesting. To the
etre s, landsman, therefore, they are strangers,
but to most people who have been to
sea they are known as the little, white-rumped swallow-
like birds who on tireless wing follow in the wake of the
ship day after day, patiently waiting for the food which
experience tells them will be thrown overboard.
Two species of Petrels are found off our coasts, "Wil-
son's and Leach's. The former has a yellow area in the
webs of the toes and a square tail, while Leach's Petrel has
the webs of the toes wholly black and a slightly forked
tail. These differences, however, would not be appre-
ciable at a distance. "Wilson's Petrel nests in certain
islands of the southern hemisphere in February, and
later migrates northward, reaching our latitude in May
and spending the summer, or what in fact is its winter,
in the ISorth Atlantic. It is, therefore, probably the
Petrel most frequently seen by transatlantic voyagers at
this season.
Leach's Petrel nests on our coasts from Maine north-
ward, arriving from the South in May. The nest is
made in a burrow in the ground or beneath a rock, and
a single white egg is laid. Generally one of the birds
spends the day on the nest while its mate is at sea, but
at night the incubating bird leaves the nest, its place being
taken probably by the one who has been feeding during
the day.
PliATE XXVII. Pagis 118 118
NIGHTHAWK. '
Length, 10-00 inches. Male, above, black, white, and rusty ; below,
black and white ; throat, bands in wing, and tail white. Fernale, simi-
lar, but throat rusty ; no tail-band.
WHIP-POOR-WILL.
Length, 9-75 inches. Male, feody black, rusty, and buff ; primaries
spotted with rusty ; tips of outer taii-feathers and breast-band white.
Female, similar, but breast-band and end of tail rusty.
DUCKS. 89
LAMELLIROSTRAL SWIMMERS. (ORDER ANSERES.)
Ducks, Geese, and Swans. (Family Anatid^.)
This family contains some two hundred species, and
is represented in all parts of the world. It includes five
subfamilies : the Mergansers {Merginm), or Fish-eating
Ducks; the Pond or River Ducks {Atiatince), the Bay or
Sea Ducks {Faligulince) ; the Geese {Aiiserinob) ; and
the Swans {Cijgnince).
Ducks, like all hunted birds, are exceedingly wild,
and comparatively few species will come within reach of
the student's opera-glass. The group may therefore be
reviewed briefly. The Mergansers or Shelldrakes, num-
bering three species, have narrow, serrate bills which
enable them to hold the fish they pursue and catch
under water (see Fig. IS).
The River Ducks have little or no lobe or flap on the
hind toe. In this group belong our Mallard, Widgeon,
Pint'.iil, Blue-winged and Green-winged
„, , ,, ' Teals, Black Duck, Wood Duck, and
others. All but the last two nest in
the North and are found in our latitude only during
their spring and fall migrations, or, if the weather be
mild, in the winter. The Black Duck and Wood Duck
nest rarely in the Middle States.
All these birds feed in shallow water by " dabbling "
or " tipping," terms which will be readily understood by
any one who has watched domesticated Ducks feeding.
The Bay and Sea Ducks, on the contrary, are divers,
and may descend to the bottom in water more than one
hundred and fifty feet in depth. They are to be dis-
tinguished from the River Ducks by the pre:ence of a
flap or lobe on the hind toe. The commoner members of
90 DUCKS AND GEESE.
this subfamily are the Redhead, Canvasback, Scaup oi
Broadbill, Whistler, Bufflehead, Old Squaw, Eider, three
species of Scoters or " Coots " and Ruddy Duck. These
are all northern-breeding birds who visit the waters of
our bays and coasts during their migrations or in the
winter.
The bill in both River and Bay Ducks has a series ol
mitters on either side which serve as strainers. The
birds secure a large part of their food — of small mollusks,
crustaceans, and seeds of aquatic plants — from the bot-
tom, taking in with it a quantity of mud, which they
get rid of by closing the bill and forcing it out through
the strainers, the food being retained.
Geese are more terrestrial than Ducks, and, though
they feed under water by tipping, often visit the land to
procure grass, corn, or cereals, which they readily nip off.
The white-faced, black-necked Canada Goose is our only
common species. Its long overland journeys, while
migrating, render it familiar to many who have seen it
only in the air. It migrates northward in March and
April and returns in October and November, breeding
from the Northern States northward and wintering from
New Jersey southward.
The two Swans, Whistling and Trumpeter, found in
North America, are generally rare on the Atlantic
coast.
HEBONS, STORKS, IBISES, ETC. (ORDER
HERODIONES.)
Herons and Bitterns. (Family Ardeid^.)
Of the seventy-five known members of this family
fourteen inhabit eastern North America. Most of these
are Southern in distribution, only six or seven species
regularly visiting the Northern States. Their large size
PliATE XXVIII.
Page 119.
CHIMNEY SWIFT.
Length, 540 inches. Sooty black, throat grayish.
GREAT BLUE HERON. 91
renders Herons conspicuous, and, though worthless as
food, few so-called sportsmen can resist the temptation
of shooting at them when opportunity offers. Several
of the Southern species, notably the Snowy Heron and
White Egret, are adorned during the nesting season with
the beautiful " aigrette " plumes which are apparently so
necessary a part of woman's headgear that they will go
out of fashion only when the birds go out of existence.
One can not blame the plume hunters, who are generally
poor men, for killing birds whose plumes are worth more
than their weight in gold — the blame lies in another
quarter. But I have no words with which to express
my condemnation of the man who kills one of these
birds wantonly.
The presence of a stately Great Blue Heron or
" Crane " adds an element to the landscape which no
Great Blue Heron, ^^^'^ ^f man can equal. Its grace of
Ardea herodias. form and uiotiou, cmphasizcd by its
Plate VI. large size, is a constant delight to the
eye ; it is a symbol of the wild hi Nature ; one never
tires of watching it. What punishment, then, is severe
enough for the man who robs his fellows of so pure
a source of enjoyment ? A rifle ball turns this noble
creature into a useless mass of flesh and feathers ; the
loss is irreparable. Still, we have no law to prevent it.
Herons are said to devour large nnmbers of small fish.
But is not the laborer worthy of his hire ? Are the fish
more valuable than this, one of the grandest of birds ?
The Great Blue Heron breeds throughout North
America, but there are now only a few localities in the
northeastern States where it may be found nesting. We
usually see it, therefore, as a migrant in April and May,
and from August to November.
The Little Green Heron is the smallest, as the Great
Blue Heron is the largest, of our Herons. Its small
92 HERONS.
size, preference for wooded regions instead of marshes,
and liabit of nesting alone, not in flocks, like most Her-
little Green Heron, ^^s, accounts for^ its being relatively
Ardea vn-esce/is. common. It arrives from the South
Plate VI. about April 20, and nests early in
May. The nest, as is usual in this family, is a rude
platform of sticks and is placed in a bush or the lower
branch of a tree, often overhanging the water. The eggs
number from three to six, and in color are pale green-
ish blue. The young, although born with a covering of
hairlike feathers, are quite helpless and are reared in
the nest. Adults have the crown and back dark, glossy
green, the neck reddish brown.
The notes of this little Heron are a clear whistle and
a harsh squawk, uttered when it is frightened. It then
seeks refuge by ahghting in a distant bush or tree, and
with upstretched neck and twitching tail watches the
inti'iider.
The J^ight Heron, or Squawk, doubtless owes its
escape from the fate of most Herons to its nocturnal
habits. These birds arrive from the
Black-crowned c^ .^ • \ •^ i • j.'i r\
Ni ht Heron ^outli m April and remain until (Jc-
^'ycticoraJ^ nyctkorax toLcr. They ncst in large colonies, a
noivius. rookery not far from l^ew York city
Plate \ I. "being inhabited by at least one thousand
pairs. It is in a low, wooded tract, and the nests are built
in the trees at an average height of thirty feet. The eggs
number four to six, and in color are pale bluish green.
At night, while feeding, these Herons are doubtless
distributed over a ^^ade area. When flying, they often
utter a loud sqrtawh, the origin of one of their common
names. It is a surprising sound when heard near by at
night, and has doubtless aroused the curiosity of many
persons who live near a line of flight followed by these
birds in going to and from their nests.
'^> ■//,'''
PliATE XXIX.
Page 120.
RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD.
Length, 3 -75 inches. Adull male, upper parts metallic green; throat
metallic ruby-red ; belly grayish ; sides greenish. AduU female and
young, similar, but throat white.
AMERICAN BITTERN. 93
The Bittern, or Stake Driver, is a summer resident of
our larger marshes, arriving early in April and remaining
American Bittern, ""^i^ October. Though by no means
Botaurus lentujinosus. common, its notos are so loud and re-
Plate V II. markable that even a single calling
bird is more likely to attract attention than many smaller
abundant species. Under favorable circumstances these
notes may be heard for at least three fourths of a mile.
They are of two kinds. One is described as the " pump-
ing" call, and is generally written ptwip-er-lunk, pump-
er-lunk, pmnp-er-hmk, while the other is deceptively like
the sound produced by driving a stake in the mud. Mr.
Bradford Torrey, one of the few ornithologists who has
observed the bird while it was uttering these singular
cries, tells us (The Auk, vi, 1889, p. 1) that they are
attended by violent, convulsive movements of the head
and neck, which suggest the contortions of a seasick
person, but that the bird's bill is neither immersed in
water nor plunged in the mud, as has been popularly
supposed.
CRANES, RAILS, ETC. (ORDER PALUDICOL.ffi.)
Rails and Coots. (Family Rallid^.)
Rails are marsh-inhabiting birds, more often heard
than seen. They are very reluctant to take wing, and
when pursued seek safety by running or hiding rather
than by flying. When flushed, they go but a short dis-
tance, and Avith dangling legs soon drop back into the
grasses.
Of the one hundred and eighty members of this
family, fourteen inhabit North America and eight visit
the northeastern United States. Only three or four of
these, however, are abundant, the most nmuerous and
04: KAILS AND COOT.
generally distributed species being our Sora or Carolina
Rail, so well known to sportsmen. Tliis bird passes
ggj.g^ us in the spi-ing in April and nests from
Porzana Carolina. Massacliusetts northward. It returns
Plate VII. -j^ August and lingers in our wild-rice
marshes until October. During the nesting season it
lias two calls — a whistled, ker-ime^ and a high, rolling
whinny. In the fall it utters a huk or 'peep when dis-
turbed.
There is no sexual difference in color in this species,
but birds of the year lack the black about the base of
the bill and on the throat, and have the breast washed
with cinnamon.
Our other species of Rail are the King, Yellow, and
Little Black Rail, all of which are rare ; the Virginia Rail,
Clapper Bail which is more common, and the Clap-
Rniius crepitans. per Rail or Marsh Hen, an abundant
Plate \ III. species in some of the salt marshes
alono- our coasts from Long Island southward. It is a
noisy bird with a peculiar cacklmg call which it utters
in a way that suggests the sound produced by some auto-
matic toys.
Its nest is made of dried grasses, the surrounding
marsh grass being slightly arched over it. Eight to
twelve buffy, speckled eggs are laid, a number which,
in connection with the abundance of the bird, has led to
the j)ersistent robbing of its nests by men who sell the
eggs for food. As a result of this practice the birds
have greatly decreased in numbers during recent years.
The Coot, Mud-hen, or Crow-duck differs from the
Rails in having lobed toes (see Fig. 12) and in being
American Coot, '^^o^'^ aquatic. In fact, it is more like
Faiica amerieaivt. a Duck in liabits than like a Rail, but
Plate VIII. ^^g pointed, white-tipped bill will pre-
vent its being mistaken for one. .
Plate XXX. Page 122.
KINGBIED.
Length, 8*50 inches. Upper parts grayish black; tip of tail and under
parts white ; an orange-red crown-patch. You»g, similar, but without
orange-red in crown.
WOODCOCK. 95
It rarely breeds on the Atlantic coast, but is some-
times common on our marsh-bordered streams in the
fall.
SHORE BIRDS. (ORDER LIMICOL^.)
Snipes and Sandpipers. (Family Scolopacidje.)
The successful pursuit of shore birds on our coasts
requires a special knowledge of their notes and habits.
Thirty of the one hundred known species \dsit us annu-
ally, but of this number only two or three nest, most of
the others migrating in May to their breeding grounds in
the far J^ortli. The return migration takes place during
July, August, and Septeml^er, but with some exceptions
these birds are seen only by those who hunt them sys-
tematically with decoys.
Only these exceptions and our summer resident species
will be mentioned here. Commonest among the latter
is the Woodcock, a bird so unlike other
„,.,,, .' . Snipe in his choice of haunts that he
seems quite out of place in this family.
Xor is he, strictly speaking, a summer resident, for there
are only three months in the year when the Woodcock
is not with us. He comes in March as soon as the frost-
bound earth will permit him to probe for his diet of
worms, and he remains until some December freeze
drives him southward.
Low, wet woods, where skunk cabbage and hellebore
thrive, or bush-grown, springy runs, are the Woodcock's
early haunts. In August, while molting, he often visits
cornfields in the bottom lands, and in the fall wooded
hillsides are his resorts. But, wherever he is, the Wood-
cock leaves his mark in the form of " borings " — little holes
which dot the earth in clusters, and show where the bird
96 SPOTTED SANDPIPER.
has probed for earthworms with his long, sensitive bill,
the upper mmdible of which, as Mr. Gordon Trumbull
has discovered, the bird can use as a finger.
The Woodcock's nest is made of dried leaves, and the
four large, peai^shaped eggs are buff, spotted with shades
of reddish brown. The young are born covered with
rich chestnut and buif down, and can run as soon as
drj.
As a songster the Woodcock is unique among our
summer birds. Ordinarily sedate and dignified, even
pompous in his demeanor, in the spring he falls a victim
to the passion which is accountable for so many strange
customs in the bird world.
If some April evening you visit the Woodcock's
haunts at sunset, you may hear a loud, nasal note repeated
at short mtervah—jjee fit, peent. It resembles the call of
a Nighthawk, but is the Woodcock sounding the first
notes of his lo-ve song. He is on the ground, and as you
listen, the call ceases and the bird springs from the ground
to mount skyward on whistling wings. He may rise
three hundred feet, then, after a second's pause, one hears
a twittering whistle and the bird shoots down steep
inclines earthward. Unless disturbed, he will probably
return to near the spot from which he started and at
once resume his peenting. This, with the twittering
note, is vocal ; the whistling sound, heard as the bird rises,
is produced by the rapid passage of air through its stif-
fened primaries.
Our only other common summer resident Snipe is the
Spotted Sandpiper. It frequents the shores of lakes,
Spotted Sandpiper, P^^^^^, and rivers, and is also found
Actitis mnciiiaria. ucar the sea, but wherever seen may be
Plate XL known by its singular tipping, teter-
ing motion, which has given it the names of Tip-up and
Teter Snipe. It is also called Peet-weet, from its sharp
Plate XXXI.
CRESTED FLYCATCHER.
Paob 123.
Length, 9-00 inches. Upper parts browisb olive-green; inner vane of
tail-feathers rusty ; breast gray ; belly pale yellow.
WILSON'S SNIPE. 97
cfJl, rapidly repeated as it flies over the water. After
gaining headway it sails for some distance, when its wide-
stretched wings show a white bar or band.
The Spotted Sandpiper arrives from the South late
in April and remains until October. It nests in the lat-
ter half of May, laying four pear-shaped eggs, in color
white or buff, thickly spotted and speckled with choco-
late, chiefly at the larger end. The young, like those of
all Snipe, are born with a covering of downy feathers,
and can run as soon as dry. The egg is, therefore, large
in proportion to the size of the bird, and measures 1'25 by
•95 inches. (See Fig. 24:a.)
Unlike the two preceding birds, AVilson's or the
English Snipe is not a summer resident in the Middle
Wilson's Snipe States, but as .a rule nests from north-
Gaiiiiiago deiimta. em New England northward, though
Plate IX. there are records of its breedinij as
far south as Connecticut and Pennsylvania. It migrates
northward in March and April, and the return journey
occurs during September and October. It is not a true
shore bird, but frequents fresh-water marshes and mead-
ows, and in rainy April weather, when the lowlands be-
come more or less flooded, it may be found in places where
few persons would think of looking for Snipe.
Like the Woodcock, Wilson's Snipe probes the mud
for food,' and when on the ground among the grasses its
colors and pattern of coloration so closely resemble its
surroundings that it is almost invisible.
When flushed, it utters a startled scalp ^ and darts
quickly into the air, flying at first in so erratic a manner
that it has become famous among sportsmen as a diSi-
cult mark.
Like the Nighthawk, Wilson's Snipe sometimes dives
earthward from high in the air, making as he falls a
sound which Minot compares to that produced by throw-
98 SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER.
ing a nail held crosswise in the hand, though it is louder
and more full. This performance is generally restricted
to late evening and early morning during the spring, but
is occasionally practiced in the fall.
Most of our transient visitant Snipe are true shore
birds. Many of them are classed as game birds, and have
Semipalmatcd ^^^^ become SO uncommon that, as
Sandpiper, before remarked, it requires a special
Ereunetespusiiius. knowledge of tlicir ways in order to
find theni. But there are some species
too small to be worthy the sportsman's attention, and they
are often numerous on our beaches. They are generally
known as Peeps or Ox-eyes, but in books are termed
Semipalmated Sandpipers — active little fellows, with
black, gray and rusty backs and white under parts, who
run along the shore, feeding on the small forms of life
cast up by the waves. They are sociable birds, and even
when feeding the members of a flock keep together, while
when flying they move almost as one bird.
These Sandpipers visit us in May, when journeying to
their summer homes within the Arctic Circle, and return
in July, to linger on our shores until October. Their
call-note is a cheery, peeping twitter, which probably
suggested one of their common names.
Plovers. (Family Charadriid^.)
Most Plovers differ from Snipe in possessing three
instead of four toes, and in having the scales on the tarsi
rounded, not square or transverse. Their bill is shorter
and stouter than that of Snipe, and they do not probe
for food, but pick it up from the surface.
Although several species visit dry fields and uplands,
they are ranked as shore birds or bay birds, and, as with
Snipe, the species large enough to be ranked as game
Pi^TE XXXII. Page 124.
PECEBE.
Length, 7-00 inches. Back dusky olive; crown blackish; under parts
white tinged with yellow ; outer margin of outer tail-feathers whitish ;
bill black.
PLOVERS. 99
have become comparatively rare. Of the one hundred
known species, six visit eastern !North America — the
Black-breasted, Golden, Piping, Wilson's, Semipalmated,
and Killdeer Plovers. Only the last two of these are
common enough to deserve mention here.
Killdeer "^^^ Killdeer, with the exception of
^£ffiaUtis vocifem. the Piping Plovcr, is the only bird of
Plate XI. ^jjjg family that nests with us. It is
irregularly distributed in the northeastern States, but its
noisy call, hlldee, Mldee, and striking markings render it
a conspicuous bird even where it is uncommon. It fre-
quents uplands and lowlands, fields and shores, but prefers
the vicinity of water. Its nest of grasses is made on the
ground, and its four eggs are whitish, spotted and scrawled
with chestnut, chiefly at the larger end.
The Semipalmated or Hing-necked Plover looks like
a miniature of the Killdeer, but, in addition to other dif-
„ . , , , _, ferences, has only one band on the
Semipalmated Plover, ' «'
Jigiaiitis breast. The male has the upper parts
semipaimata. brownish gray, the nnder parts, nape,
and forehead white, while the breast-
band, crown, and cheeks are black. In the female these
black areas are brownish gray. This Plover visits our
shores and beaches during its northward migration in
May and southward migration in August and September.
Thanks to its small size, it is not hunted as game, and
for this reason is almost as common as the little Peeps
or Ox-eyes, with which it often associates. Its call is a
simple but exceedingly sweet and plaintive two-noted
whistle.
THE LAND BIRDS.
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. (ORDER GALLING.)
Bob-whites, Grouse, etc. (Family Tetraonid^.)
This is the family of the game birds — the aristocrats
of the bird world. They are protectively colored birds,
their rich brown, buff, and black plumage harmoniz-
ing with their surroundings. Relying on their incon-
spicuousness, they avoid danger by hiding rather than by
flight, taking wing only as a final resort. Then, with a
startling wJiir-r-i\ they spring into the air, their short,
strong wings enabling them to reach their greatest speed
within a short distance of the starting paint.
One of the best-known members of this distinguished
family is our familiar Bob-white, the Quail of the North
and Partridge of the South. The fact
r, T '. . ' is, he is neither a true Quail nor Par-
Cohnus virgiiiiarius. ' ^
tridge, and those who claim that but
one of these names is correct may compromise on " Bob-
white."
The Bob- white inhabits the eastern United States, f nd
wherever ["^ound is resident throughout the year. The
sexes are much alike in color, the only important differ-
ence being in the throat and the line over the eye, which
are white in the male and buff in the femnle.
No bird better illustrates the peculiar potency of
bird song, and the hopelessness of attempting to express its
charm. If I should describe Bob-white's call to a person
who had never heard it, as two ringing notes, do you
suppose he would have the faintest conception of what
100
Plate XXXIII.
WOOD PEWEE.
Page 126.
Length, 6-50 inches. Upper parts dusky olive-green ; under parts
whitish, washed with dusky ; lower mandible yellowish.
RUFFED GROUSE. 101
they mean to those who love them ? The promise of
Sj)ring, its fiilfiUmsnt in summer, is clearly told in Bob-
white's greeting. Then, in the autumn, when the mem-
bers of a scattered bevy are signaling each other, their
sweet where are you f where are you ? is equally associated
with the season.
Tlie Bob- white nests about May 20, laying from ten
to eighteen white eggs in a nest on the ground.
The Ruffed Grouse, or Partridge of the North and
Pheasant of the South, is properly a true Grouse, and
Ruffed Grouse ^^^ ^^^^ ^® correctly called either Par-
Bonasa umbeiius. tridge or Pheasant. He is a more
Plate XII. northern bird than the Bob-white, be-
ing found south of Virginia only in the Alleghanies.
Requiring large tracts of woodland for his haunts, he
is less generally distributed and not so common as his
plump relative.
I always associate the Grouse with the astounding
roar of wings made by the bird as he springs from the
ground at my feet and sails away through the forest. I
watch him at first with dazed surprise, then with a keen
sense of pleasure in the meeting. One need not be a
sportsman to appreciate the garainess of the Grouse.
To find a hen Grouse with young is a memorable
experience. While the parent is giving us a lesson in
mother-love and bird intelligence, her downy chicks are
teaching us facts in protective coloration and heredity.
How the old one limps and flutters ! She can barely
drag herself along the ground. But while we are watch-
ing her, what has become of the ten or a dozen little
yellow balls we almost stepped on ? Not a feather do
we see, until, poking about in the leaves, we find one
little chap hiding here and another squatting there, all
perfectly still, and so like the leaves in color as to be
nearly invisible.
102 MOURNING DOVE.
The drumming of the Grouse, as described by Mr.
Thompson, begins " with the measured thump of the big
drum, then gradually changes and dies away in the rum-
ble of the kettle-drum. It may be briefly represented
thus: Thump — thump — thump — thump, thump; thump,
thump) — rup rup rup rup, T-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r. The sound is
produced by the male bird beating the air with his wings
as he stands firmly braced on some favorite low perch."
The Ruffed Grouse makes its leaf -lined nest usually
at the base of a tree or stump, and the eight to fourteen
buff eggs are laid early in May.
PIGEONS AND DOVES. (ORDER COLUMBiE.)
Pigeons and Doves. (Family Columbid^.)
The three hundred species belonging in this order are
distributed throughout most parts of the world, but only
two of them are found in the northeastern States. One
of these, however, the "Wild Pigeon, is now so rare that
its occurrence is worthy of note. Less than fifty years
ago it was exceedingly abundant, but its sociable habits
of nesting and flying in enormous flocks made it easy
prey for the market hunter, and, with that entire disre-
gard of consequences which seems to characterize man's
action when his greed is aroused, the birds were pur-
sued so relentlessly that they have been practically ex-
terminated.
The Mourning or Carolina Dove has happily been
more fortunate. IS'esting in isolated pairs, and not
Mourning Dove, gathering in very large flocks, it has
Zenaidum macro iira. escaped the market hunter.
Plate XIII. rpj^.g -Q^^^.g .g {q^^^^ throughout the
greater part of ISTorth America. In the latitude of New
York it is a summer resident, arriving in March and
PI.ATE XXXIV.
HORNED LARK.
Page 126.
Length, 7-75 inches. Upper parts brownish and sandy; front and
sides of crown, sides of throat, and breast-patch black ; forehead, line
over eye, and throat pale yellow ; breast dusky, belly white, tail black,
outer feathers margined with white.
TUEKEY VULTURE. 103
remaining until November. In April we may hear its
soft, sweet call, coo-o-o^ ali-coo-o-o — coo-o-o — coo-o-o^ as sad
as the voice of the wind in the pines.
Although the bird is as beautiful in appearance as it
is graceful in flight, it is a surprisingly poor housekeeper.
Its platform nest of a few twigs is about as flimsy as any-
thing worthy the name can be, and one wonders how
even two eggs are kept on it long enough to hatch. In
the West the nest is placed on the ground ; in the East,
on the lower branch of a tree.
Like all the members of their family. Doves immerse
the bill while drinking, and do not withdraw it until
the draught is finished. The young are fed on softened
food regurgitated from the parent's crop.
BIRDS OF PREY. (ORDER RAPTORES.)
American Vultures. (Family Cathartid^.)
There are but eight Vultures in the western hemi-
sphere, and only two of these, the Black and the Turkey
Vulture, are found in the eastern United States. The
former is not often seen north of North
Turkey Vulture, Carolina, but the Turkey Vulture, or
Cathartes aura. ' 'J '
Turkey Buzzard, as it is more frequent-
ly called, comes each summer as far as Princeton, N. J.,
and occasionally strays farther north.
The Turkey Buzzard is one of Nature's scavengers,
and, as such, is one of the few birds whose services to
mankind are thoroughly appreciated. There are others
of equal or even greater value who daily earn their
right to the good will which we stupidly and persistently
refuse to grant them ; but of the Turkey Buzzard's assist-
ance we have frequent convincing proof, and the decree has
gone forth that injury to this bird is punishable by fine.
104 RED-SHOULDERED HAWK.
'No other birds ai-e so well protected ; and as a result
Turkey Buzzards and Black Vultures walk about the streets
of some of our Soutliern cities with the tanieness of domes-
tic fowls. If we should similarly encourage our insectivo-
rous birds, who can j)redict the benefits which might accrue ?
Hawks, Falcons, and Eagles. (Family Falconid^.)
To this family belong the diurnal birds of prey,
which number some three hundred and fifty species, and
are distributed throughout the world. They are birds
of strong flight, and capture their prey on the wing by
striking it with their sharp, curved claws, the most dead-
ly weapons to be found in any bird's armament. The
bill is short, stout, and hooked, and is used to tear the
prey while it is held by the feet.
The voices of Hawks are in keeping with their dis-
positions, and, while their lives typify all that is fierce
and cruel, no birds are more often wrongly accused and
falsely persecuted than our birds of prey. To kill one
is regarded as an act of special merit ; to spare one seems
to place a. premium on crime. Still, these birds are among
the best friends of the farmer. There are but two of our
common species. Cooper's and the Sharp-shinned, who
habitually feed on birds and poultry. Our other com-
mon species are, without exception, invaluable aids to the
agriculturist in preventing the undue increase of the small
rodents so destructive to crops.
Any one reading Dr. Fisher's reports on this subject
can not fail to be impressed with the ari'ay of facts he
Red-shouldered presents in proof of the value of these
Hawk, birds. For instance, the Eed-shoul-
Buteo linentus. dcrod Hawk, to which the name
Plate XIV. Chicken or Hen Hawk is often ap-
plied, has been found to live largely on small mammals,
Plate XXXV. Page 131.
BALTIMOEE ORIOLE.
Length, 7*50 inches. Male, crown, upper back, and throat black; lower
back, outer tail-feathers, breast, and beily rich orange; Female, upper
parts mixM black and yellowish, rump and tail dirty yeUow ; under
parts dusky yellow.
RED-SHOULDERED HAWK. 105
reptiles, batracliians, and insects. Indeed of 220 stomachs
which were examined of this so-called " Chicken " Hawk,
onlj 3 contained remains of poultry! Of the rest, 12
contained birds ; 102, mice ; 40, other mammals ; 20,
reptiles ; 39, batrachians ; 92, insects ; 16, spiders ; 7,
crawfish ; 1, earthworms ; 2, oiial ; 3, fish ; and 14 were
empty.* The usefulness of this Hawk is therefore obvi-
ous, and in killing it we can readily see that we not only
harm ourselves but render an important service to our
enemies.
Fortunately, this valuable ally is one of our com-
monest Hawks, and is with us throughout the year. Its
loud scream, A'ee-7/oio,kee-i/ou, as it sails about, high in the
air, is a familiar summer sound. The " red " shoulder is in
reality a rich, reddish chestnut on the lesser \ving-covei*ts,
and serves to identify the bird in both immature and
adult plumage. The Rel-shoulder's nest, like that of
most of our Hawks, is constructed of sticks and twigs,
with a lining of ceJar bark, moss, or some other soft
material, and is situated in a tree thirty to sixty feet
from the ground. Apparently the same pair of birds re-
turn to a locality year after year, sometimes using the
same nest, at others building a new one. The eggs are
about as large as those of a hen and in color are dull
white, more or less sprinkled, spotted, or blotched with
cinnamon-brown or chocolate. They are laid early in
April, most of the Hawks being early breeders. The
young are born covered with white down, but are help-
less, and are rearel in the nest.
The Red-tailed Hawk is also known as the Hen Hawk
or Chicken Hawk, but has almost as good a record as
* See Fisher. The Hawk<; and Owls of the United States in their
Relation to Agriculture; Bulletin No. 3, Division of Ornithology
and Mammalogy, United States Department of Agriculture, 1893.
106 HAWKS.
the Ked-slioulder, and is equally deserving of proteC'
tion. He is larger than the Red-shoulder, whom he re-
sembles in habits, and has a reddish
Red-tailedHawk, ^^,^^^ ^^.j ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^
huteo oorealts.
across the breast when adult. His call
is a thin, long-drawn, wheezj whistle, which reminds one
of the sound produced by escaping steam.
The Marsh Hawk courses to and fro over field and
meadow, like a Gull over the water. He never sails,
Marsh Hawk, however, but on firm wing flies easily
Circus hud.'sonius. and gracefully, ever on the watch for
Plate XV. prey in the grasses below. He may
sometimes mistake birds for mice, but he captures far
more of the latter than of the former, and only 7 of the
124 Marsh Hawks whose stomachs were examined by
Dr. Fisher had eaten chickens.
The Marsh Hawk is migratory, and in winter is not
often found north of southern Connecticut. He nests
later than the resident Hawks, and, unlike them, builds
his nest of grasses on the ground in the marshes, laying
from four to six dull white or bluish white eggs early
in May.
The Sparrow Hawk has a perfectly clean record,
as far as chickens go, not one of the 320 whose stomachs
Sparrow Hawk, ^^^^^ examined by Dr. Fisher, having
Faico sparverins. partaken of poultry, while no less than
Plate XVI. 215 had eaten insects, and 89 had cap-
tured mice. Grasshoppers are the Sparrow Hawk's chief
food, and we may often see him hovering over the fields
with rapidly moving mngs. Then, dropping lightly down
on some unsuspected victim below, he returns to the bare
limb or stub he uses for a lookout station, uttering an
exultant Mlhj — Jdlhj — kilhj as he flies.
The Sparrow is distributed throughout the greater
part of North America, but in winter is not found north
Plate XXXVI. Paoe 132.
ORCHARD ORIOLE.
Length, 7-30 inches. Adult male, crown, back, and throat black, rest
of body chestnut. Young male, upper pai^ olive-green ; throat black,
rest of under parts yellowish. Female, similar, but black on throat
replaced by yellowish.
HAWKS. 107
of soutliern N"ew York. It migrates northward in Feb-
ruary and March, but does not nest until May. Unhke
our other Hawks, it chooses a hollow tree for a home,
often taking possession of a "Woodpecker's deserted hole.
It lays three to seven eggs, which are finely and evenly
marked with reddish brown.
It is the Sharp-shinned and Cooper's Hawks who are
the real culprits in Hawkdom. They feed almost exclu-
Sharp-shinned Hawk, ^i^ely on birds, and, having once ac-
Accipiter veiox. quircd a taste for tender young broilers,
Plate XVII. ^|)jgy j^j.g fjp^ iq i^ake daily visits to the
hen yards. They are less often observed than the Hawks
previously mentioned, seeking less exposed perches and
soaring comparatively little ; but, when seen, their slen-
der bodies and long tails should aid in distinguishing
them from the stouter, slower-flying Hawks. As a rule,
they are silent. It is difficult to explain the differences
between these and other Hawks with sufficient clearness
to prevent one's killing the wrong kind, but if the farmer
will withhold his judgment against Hawks in general,
and shoot only those that visit his poultry yard, he will
not go far astray.
Cooper's Hawk resembles the Sharp-shinned in color,
but is about four inches longer, and its outer tail-feathers
are about half an inch shorter than the
oopers aw , middle ones instead of beins; of equal
Accipittr cooperi. _ _ ^ J- ^
length. With the preceding species it
may be known by its slender form, long tail, compara-
tively short wings, and long, thin tarsi or " legs."
The Chinese and Japanese train Cormorants to fish
American Osprey, ^^^ ^^^^™' ^"*^ *^^^ services of these birds
Pandion haiiaetus would soon be at a discouut if the
caroUnensis. Qsprev could be induced to work for a
Plate XVIII. -^ -^ . . . . , ^ ., .
master. What an mspirmg sight it is
to see one plunge from the air upon its prey ! One can
108 OWLS.
sometimes hear the splash half a mile or more, and the
bird is quite concealed by the spray. It is a magnifi-
cent performance, and when, after shaking the water from
his plumage, he rises into the air, I am always tempted to
applaud.
The Osj)rey, or Fish Hawk, as he is also called, adheres
closely to a finny diet ; neither flesh nor fowl appears on
his menu, and he is consequently a migratory bird, com-
ing in April when the ice has melted and remaining until
October. In favorable localities he nests in colonies, re-
turning year after year to the same nest.
One master, it is true, the Osprey has, though he
makes a most unwilling servant. The Bald-headed
Eagle is often an appreciative observer of the Osprey's
piscatorial powers, which so far exceed
Haliixetus ' his own that he wisely, if unjustly,
leucocephalns. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ Pursuing the Osprey,
he forces him to mount higher and higher until the poor
bird in despair drops his prize, which the Eagle captures
as it falls.
Eagles are becoming so rare in the Northern States
that their occurrence is sometimes commented on by the
local press as a matter of general interest. Nevertheless,
no opportunity to kill them is neglected, and the majestic
birds who in life arouse our keenest admiration are sac-
rificed to the wanton desire to kill.
The Owls. (Family Bubonid^.)
The Owls number about two hundred species, and
are distributed throughout the world. As a rule they
are nocturnal or crepuscular birds, passing the day in
hollow trees or dense evergreens, and appearing only
after nightfall ; but there are some diurnal species, such
Plate XXXVII. Page 133.
PUEPLE GKACKLE.
Length, male, 12-50 inches; female, ll-OO inches. Male, head, neck,
throats and breast bright metallic blue, purple, or green ; back with
iridescent bars; belly paler; eye pale yeUaw. Female, much duller
than male.
OWLS. 109
as tlie Snowy Owl and Hawk Owl, northern birds that
visit us rarely in winter.
Because of their nocturnal habits Owls are even more
deserving of protection than the beneficial Hawks, for
they feed at a time when mice are abroad, and their
food consists largely of these destructive little rodents.
They capture their prey, like the Hawks, by striking it
with their powerful talons, when, if small enough, it is
swallowed entire. The indigestible portions, hair, bones,
and feathers, are formed into pellets in the stomach and
ejected at the mouth. These may always be found in
numbers beneath, an Owl's roosting place, and form as
sure an indication of the Owl's presence as they do of
the nature of his food. Thus, as before mentioned, two
hundred pellets of the Barn Owl, taken from the home of
a pair of these birds in the tower of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, were found by Dr. A. K. Fisher to contain the
skulls of 454 small mammals.
Owls are generally inhabitants of woods, but our
Short-eared Owl is an exception to this rule, and lives
Short-eared Owl, ^ ^^^S^^ g^'^^^sy marshes. It passes the
Asia accij-iitrinus. day on the grouud, but at dusk may be
Plate XIX. gggjj flying low Over the marsh in search
of the meadow mice which form a large part of its food.
Dr. Fisher found, on examination of 101 stomachs of this
Owl, that no less than 77 contained the remains of mice,
convincing proof of its usefulness. Unlike any of our
other Owls, the Short-eared makes its nest on the ground,
laying from four to seven eggs. It is somewhat irregular
in its distribution, but has been found nesting, locally,
from Virginia northward. It winters from New Jersey
southward, and is sometimes associated in companies at
this season.
The Long-eared Owl is about the size of the Short-
eared Owl, but its ■' ear-tufts " are an inch or more in
110 OWLS.
length, and its sides and belly are Ijarred^ not streaked^
with blackish. It does not frequent marshes, but lives in
swampj thickets or dense woods, and
Long-eared Owl, ^^^^j^^g -^^ ^^^^^ -^^ ^j^^ abandoned home
of a Crow, Hawk, or squirrel. It is a
permanent resident from at least Massachusetts south-
ward.
Of our four " horned " Owls, the Long-eared has rela-
tively the largest and most conspicuous " ear-tufts," the
Short-eared the smallest, while in the Great Horned Owl
and Screech Owl the ears are of about the same propor-
tionate size. The Great Horned Owl, however, is found
only in the wilder, more heavily wooded parts of the coun-
try, and is hardly to be included in a list of our common
birds. It is the largest of our resident Owls, the males
measuring twenty-two inches in length, while its " ear-
tufts " are nearly two inches long.
The Screech Owl is doubtless the commonest of our
Owls, as it is also the most familiar, nesting about and
Screech Owl even in our houses when some favor-
Mtgascops asio. able hole oifci's. It has little to say for
Plate XX. i^ggif ^jj^'i i^g family of four to six
fuzzy Owlets is safely launched into the world; then, in
July or August, we may hear its melancholy voice— not
a "screech," but a tremulous, wailing whistle. It has
several other notes difficult to describe, and when alarmed
defiantly snaps its bill.
Some Screech Owls are gray, others bright reddish
brown, and these extremes are connected by specimens
intermediate in color. This difference in color is not due
to age, sex, or season, and is termed dichromatism, or
the presence in the same species of two phases of color.
The same phenomenon is shown by other birds, notably
certain Herons, and among mammals by the gray squir-
rel, some individuals of which are black. The observa-
_--._.^T_, Page 134.
Plate XXXVIII.
BOBOLINK.
Length, 7-25 inches. Male, in summer, nape buff ; shoulders and rump
whitish ; crown and under parts black. Female, young, and male tn
winter, sparrowlike ; upper parts black, brownish, and buffy ; under
parts yellowish white.
BARRED OWL. HI
tioiis of Dr. A. P. Chadboiirne apparently show tliat the
Screech Owl may pass from one phase to another without
change of plumage.*
We do not think of Owls as being insectivorous birds,
but Dr. A. K. Fisher tells us that of 225 Screech Owls'
stomachs examined, 100 contained insects. As 91 of the
remaining 125 contained mice, and poultry was found
in only one stomach, the farmer may well consider the
Screech Owl a bii'd of good repute rather than of ill
omen.
Next to the Screech Owl the Barred Owl is doubtless
our most common representative of this family, but its
Barred Owl fondness for deep woods prevents its
Syrnium nthuiosum. being knowu to many who recognize the
Plate XXI. Screech Owl's mournful song.
In both voice and appearance the Barred Owl seems
the most human of our Owls. Its call is a deep-voiced
questioning whoo-whoo-iohoo, whb-whoo, to-whOD-ah^
which may be heard at a distance of half a mile. It
echoes through the woods at night with startling force,
and the stories told of its effect on persons who were
ignorant of its source are doubtless not without foun-
dation.
Other calls are a long-drawn whO-d-d-d-dh, and rarely
a thrilling, weird shriek. "When two or more Owls are
together, they sometimes join in a most singular concerted
performance. One utters about ten rapid hoots, while
the other, in a slightly higher tone, hoots about half as
fast, both birds ending together with a whdd-ah. At
other times they may hoot and laugh in a most remark-
able and quite indescribable manner.
The Barred Owl feeds largely on mice, and 46 of 100
stomachs examined contained remains of these rodents.
* The Auk (New York city), xiii, 1896, p. 321 ; xiv, 1897, p. 33.
112 CUCKOOS.
It is generally resident tlirougliout its range, and in
March makes its nest, selecting for a site a hollow tree,
or the deserted home of a Crow or Hawk. Two to fom-
eggs are laid, which, like the eggs of all Owls, are pure
white.
CUCKOOS, KINGFISHERS, ETC. (ORDEB, COCCYGES).
Cuckoos. (Family Cuculid^.)
All Cuckoos have two toes directed forward and two
backward, but the cause or use of this character it is dif-
ficult to understand, so widely do the members of this
family differ in habit. Some are arboreal, never visiting
the earth, while others are terrestrial, running with great
swiftness, and rarely perching far above the ground.
Most Cuckoos — all our thirty-five American species —
have noticeably long tails, which they raise and droop
slowly just after ahghting, or wlien their curiosity is
aroused.
Of the one hundred and seventy-five known species,
only two are found in the northeastern States — the Yel-
„ „ ^.„ , „ , billed and the Black-billed Cuckoos.
Tellow-biUed Cuckoo, . ,11
cocajzus americanus. The formcr IS generally the more com-
Piate XXII. mon. It is a retiring bird, and you
will doubtless be first rttracted to it by its notes. It does
not perch in an exposed position, nor make long flights,
but usually flies from the shelter of one tree directly into
the protecting foHage of another. If you catch a glimpse
of it in pnssing, its long tail and brownish color will
suggest a Dove.
Cuckoos are mysterious birds well worth watching.
I would not imply that their deeds are evil ; on the con-
trary, they are exceedingly beneficial birds. One of
their favorite foods is the tent caterpillar which spins the
Plate XXXIX.
MEADOWLARK.
Page 136.
Length, 10-75 inches. Upper parts black, brown, and buff; under
parts yellow, a black crescent on the breast, sides streaked with black ;
outer tail-feathers white.
KINGFISHERS. 113
destructive " worms' nests " in our fruit and shade trees.
Indeed, we should be very much better off if Cuckoos
were more numerous. Nevertheless, there is something
about the Cuckoo's actions which always suggests to me
that he either has just done, or is about to do, something
he shouldn't.
The Yellow-billed Cuckoo's call begins with a series
of tutrtuts or cl-iicks, and ends with a loud cow, cow, cow,
cow, cow, cow. These notes are so unlike those of any
other of our birds, except those of the Black-billed
Cuckoo, that they will readily be recognized.
The Black- billed Cuckoo resembles the Yellow-bill,
but has the bill wholly black, the skin about the eye red,
Black-billed Cuckoo, ^^^^ ^^^^ tail-feathers with only small,
Cocci/zus inconspicuous whitish tips. It resem-
erythropUhaimm. i^jgg ^j^g Ycllow-bill in habits, but, as
Mr. Brewster tells me, its tut and cluch notes are softer,
and the coio-coio notes are connected.
Both our Cuckoos are migratory, \vintering in Cen-
tral and South America. They return to us about May
5, and remain until October. Their nests are carelessly
made platforms of sticks with a few catkins added as a
lining, and are usually placed in tangles of vine-covered
bushes, or the lower limbs of trees. The eggs, three to
five in number, are pale, greenish blue, those of the
Black -bill being slightly smaller in size and darker in
color than those of its yellow-billed cousin.
Kingfishers. (Family Alcedinid^.)
Of the one hundred and eighty known Kingfishers,
only eight are inhabitants of the New World, the head-
quarters of the family being in the East Indies. The New
World species are mostly tropical, and but one of the eight
reaches the eastern United States. This is our common
114 WOODPECKERS.
Belted Kingfisher, familiar by voice and appearance to
every one who lives near a river or pond. He comes
Belted Kingfisher, ^^ M^^'^\ when the ice no longer cov-
ctri/ie a/ci/o/i. ers his hunting ground, and remains
Plate XXIII. until November ; or, if the season be
exceptionally mild, he sometimes stays for the winter
fishing. His nest is built in a hole in a bank, where,
early in May, his mate lays from five to eight white
eggs.
The Kingfisher is generally branded a fish thief and
accounted a fair mark for every man with a gun, and,
were it not for his discretion in judging distances and
knowing just when to fly, he would long ago have disap-
peared from the haunts of man. We might now be a
few fish richer, but would they repay us for the loss of
this genius of wooded shores ?
WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECKS. (ORDER PICI.)
Woodpeckers. (Faintly Picid^.)
The three hundred and fifty known species of Wood-
peckers are represented in al' the wooded parts of the
world except the Australian, region and Madagascar.
Nearly one half this number are found in the New
World, and of these twenty -five occur in North America.
Few birds seem better adapted to their mode of life
than Woodpeckers, the structure of their bill, tongue,
tail, and feet being admirably suited to their needs.
The notes of Woodpeckers can not be termed musical,
and their chief contribution to the springtime chorus is a
rolling tattoo which resembles the h-r-r-r-.ring call of the
tree frogs. The feathered drummer selects a resonant
hmb and pounds out his song with a series of strokes de-
Plate XL. Page 137.
COWBIKD.
Length, 7-90 inches. Male, head and neck all around dark coffee-
brown ; rest of plumage glossy gre lish black. Female, dirty brown-
ish gray; throat whitish.
WOODPECKERS. 115
livered so quickly that his head becomes a series of mazy
heads.
Watch the Downy Woodpecker, our commonest
species, while he is engaged in this surprising perform-
Downy Woodpecker, ^^^^^- How he seems to enjoy it ! His
Dryohates puhenctns wholc appearance is martial and defi-
medianus. ^nt. It is his challenge to the Wood-
pecker world. After each roll he looks
proudly about him and perhaps utters his call-note, a
sharp peek^ peek, which suggests the sound produced by
a marble cutter's chisel. More rarely this call is pro-
longed into a connected series, when one can readily
imagine that the quarrier has dropped his tool.
The Downy is a hardy bird and is with us throughout
the year. In the winter he forms a partnership with the
Chickadee and Nuthatch, and if the good this trio does
could be expressed in figures, these neglected friends of
ours might receive some small part of the credit due
them. Who can estimate the enormous numbers of in-
sects' eggs and larvae which these patient explorers of
trunk and twig destroy ?
The Downy, as well as some other Woodpeckers, be-
lieves in the comfort of a home. He will not pass cold,
wintry nights clinging to the leeward side of a tree when
by the use of his chisel-bill he can hollow a snug chamber
in its heart. So, in the fall, we may sometimes find him
preparing his winter quarters. His nest is constructed
in the same manner, and his eggs, like those of all Wood-
peckers, are glossy white.
The Hairy Woodpecker, the Downy's big cousin, is
not quite so common as his smaller
Hairy Woodpecker, j.e,ative. The two birds are nearly alike
Dryobates villosus. . '' ,
in color, and differ only in the marK-
ings of the outer tail-feathers. In the Downy these are
white, barred with black ; in the Hairy, white without
9
116 WOODPECKERS.
black bars. The case is interesting, and sliows how nearly
alike in color distinct species may be. In size, however,
the difference is more noticeable, the Hairy being nearly
three inches the longer.
In life the Hairy is a somewhat shier bird, fonder of
the forest than of the orchard. Wi^ peek note is louder
and sharper than that of the Downy, and his rattling call
suggests that of the Kingfisher.
The gayly colored Eed-headed "Woodpecker is as
erratic in his goings and comings as he is striking in
^ , , , , dress. In the northeastern States he is
Aed-Iieaded
Woodpecker, locally common in summer, and if well
Meianerpes Supplied with bceclmuts, may remain
erythrocephalus. (j^nnff the winter. Some Tears the
Plate XXV. . *? , , , -, . , "
grayish headed young birds are excep-
tionally abundant in the fall, but their white wing-patch-
es, which show so conspicuously when they fly, and their
loud, rolling call of ker-r-ruck,^ ker-r-ruck, are unmistak-
able marks of identity.
The most interesting of our Woodpeckers is the
Flicker, or High-hole, whose popularity is attested by
Flicker ^^® ^^^* ^^ ^^ ■'^^^ i\\Q.^ thirty odd com-
Coiaptes aurntus. mou names. Surely here is an instance
Plate XXVI. illustrating the necessity of one sci-
entific term by which the " Piquebois jaune " of Louisi-
ana may be recognized as the " Clape " of New York.
He is also a Yucker, a Flicker, and a Yellow-ham-
mer ; all these names being based on his notes or plu-
mage.
The Flicker is less of a carpenter than are others of
his family, and generally selects decayed logs and stumps
as his hunting grounds. Here he hunts for his favorite
food of ants, which he also procures at their holes and
mounds. This is the reason we so often flush the Flicker
from the ground, and, if we mark the spot from which he
Plate XLI. Page 138.
SONG SPAEKOW.
Length, 6-25 inches. Upper parts chestnut, gray, and black ; under
parts white, streaked with chestnut and black ; outer tail-feathers
shortest.
GOATSUCKERS. II7
rises, the probabilities are tLat we shall find there a much-
disturbed community of ants.
Professor Beal has shown that nearly one half of the
Flicker's food consists of ants. He further tells us that
as ants aid in the increase of the plant lice so injurious
to vegetation, the birds which feed on ants are therefore
the friends of the agriculturist.
The Flicker's most prominent marks, as with a low
chuckle he bounds up before you, are his white rump
patch and his wings, which show yellow in flight. His
notes are equally characteristic. The most common is a
loud, vigorous kee-yer^ apparently a signal or salute. In
the spring, and occasionally in the fall, he utters a pleas-
ing, rather dreamy euh-cuh-cuh-cuh, many times repeated.
When two or more birds are together, and in my ex-
perience only then, they address each other with a
singular loeechew, weecheio^ weechew, a sound which can
be imitated by the swishing of a willow wand. Much
ceremony evidently prevails in the Flicker family, and
on these occasions there is more bowing and scraping
than one often sees outside of Spam.
GOATSUCKERS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMINGBIRDS.
(ORDER MACROCHIRES.)
NiGHTHAWKS AND WhIP-POOR- WILLS.
(Family Caprimulgid^.)
In this family the moutli of birds reaches its greatest
development, while the bill proper is correspondingly
small, bearing muoh the same relation to the mouth that
a clasp does to a purse. These birds feed at night upon
insects which they catch on the wing, and their enormous
gape is obWously of great assistance in this mode of feed-
ing. Often the sides of the mouth are beset with long
L18 NiaHTHAWK.
bristles, which doubtless act like the wings to a fish-net,
steering unfortunate insects down the bird's cavernous
throat.
The Nighthawk, or Bull-bat, as he is called in the
South, is familiar to most persons who have the gift of
„. , ,, , seeing birds, but — in the northeastern
Kigiithawk, oi 1 •
Chordeiies States, at least — he is usually confused
virginianus. ^^th the "Whip-DOor-will, and little is
Plate XXVII. 1 c ^ ■ \ \ 4.
known oi his real character.
The Kighthawk is a bird of the sky. He passes the
day perched motionless on a limb in wooded regions, on
the ground in treeless regions, or even on a house top,
when, as sometimes happens, he makes his home in a city.
Probably he will not change his perch during the day,
but as night approaches and his day begins, he will
spread his long wings and fly away heavenward to
course far above the earth in his search for insect
food.
The Nighthawk, unlike most members of its family,
has limited vocal powers, its ojily note being a loud, nasal
pee}it uttered as it flies. But it has musical talents in
another direction. Sometimes in May or June, if you
happen to be where Nighthawks are found — for they are
rather local in distribution when nesting — you may hear
a strange booming, rushing sound ; you will vainly seek
its cause until you chance to see a Nighthawk with set
wings diving earthward from the sky. It is a reckless
performance, and you may suppose the bird's object is
suicidal, but, when within a few yards of the earth, it
will turn suddenly upward. At this moment you will
hear the loud, humming soimd, doubtless made by the
air passing through the bird's stiffened wing-quills.
IS'ighthawks, being insect-catchers, are of course
highly migratory. They come to us early in May, and
return to their winter quarters in South America in Oc-
"i^V
/
1^-
.■-/"
1
Plate XLII.
Page 139.
SWAMP SPAEKOW.
Length, 5-90 inches. Summer plumage, crown bright chestnut ; back
black, brown, and buff ; breast grayish ; belly white ; sides brownish.
Winter plumage, similar, but crown streaked with chestnut-brown,
black, and gray.
CHIMNEY SWIFT. 119
tober. During the fall migrations they often gather in
flocks of several himdred, and as they sail about you
may notice their best field mark, a white spot in each
wing. !Nighthawks lay two elliptical, mottled eggs on
the bare ground or a flat rock in open fields, and, rarely,
on a house top in the city.
We see the !Nighthawk and hear the Whip-poor-will ;
one reason perhaps why the birds are so often confused.
WMp-poor-will While the N ightha wk is darting through
Atitrostoiiuisvociferus. the sky, tlio Whip-poor-will is perched
Plate XXVII. Q^ ^ rook or fence rail below, indus-
triously whipping out a succession of rapid whip-poor-
wills interspersed with barely audible chucks. When the
call ceases, the bird is doubtless coursing low through the
wooded fields and glades in its search for insects.
During the day the Whip-poor-will usually rests on
the ground in the woods. Here also the eggs are laid,
being deposited upon the leaves. They are two in num-
ber, dull white, with delicate, obscure lilac markings and
a few distinct brownish gray spots.
Whip-poor-wills arrive from the south late in April,
and remain with us until October,
Swifts. (Family Micropodid^.)
Swifts are the most aerial of all the small land birds.
Our Chimney Swift, the only one of the seventy-five
Chimney Swift members of this family that occurs in
Chidura peiagica. eastern North America, is but five and
Plate xxviii. ^ |^j^|£ inches long, while its spread
wings measure twelve and a half inches from tip to tip.
Its feet are proportionately small, and so weak that the
bird can rest only by clinging to an upright surface.
The tail is then used as a prop, its spiny-tipped feathers
being evidently a result of this habit.
120 HUMMINGBIRDS.
Swifts naturally nest in hollow trees or eaves, and it
is only in the more densely populated parts of their
range that they resort to chimneys and outbuildings.
The nest of our Chimney Swift is a hracketlike basket
of small twigs. They are gathered by the bird while
on the wing, and are fastened together and to the wall
of the tree or chimney with a glutinous saliva.
The Chimney Swift arrives from the south about
April 20, and remains until October. Few birds are
better known, and under the name of " Chimney Swal-
low" he is familiar to every one who distinguishes a
Crow from a Roljin. But, beyond similar feeding habits,
S'wifts have little in common with Swallows ; in fact, are
more nearly related to Hummingbirds.
Hummingbirds. (Family Trochilid^.)
Hummingbirds are peculiar to the ISTew "World. About
five hundred species are known, but only one of them is
Kuby-tiiroated ^^"^^^ ^^^* ^^ *1^^ Mississippi. This is
Hummingbird, oi^r Kuby -throat, the sexes of which are
Trochiivs I'ohibris. sometimes thought to represent differ-
ent species. The Ruby-throat winters
as far south as Central America, but about May 1 we
may expect him to return to us, for he is as regular in
his migrations as though his wings measured a foot and
a half instead of an inch and a half in length. If you
would have him visit you, plant honeysuckle and trum-
pet flowers about your piazza, and while they are bloom-
ing there will be few days wlien you may not hear the
humming of this tiny bird's rapidly vibrating wings.
The Ruby-throat feeds on insects as well as on the
juices of flowers, and when you see him probing a corolla
he is quite as likely to be after the one as the other. The
young are fed by regurgitation, the parent bird insert-
Plate XLIII.
Page 140.
FIELD SPARROW.
Length, 5*70 inches. Upper parts bright reddish brown and black;
under parts grayish white ; bill reddish brown.
FLYCATCHERS. 121
ing its bill into tlie mouth of its offspring and injecting
food as though from a syringe.
Some tropical Hummingbirds have songs worthy the
name, but the notes of our Ruby-throat are a mere
squeak, sometimes prolonged into a twitter.
Under any circumstances a Hummingbird's nest ex-
cites admiration. But if you would appreciate its fairylike
beauty, find one where the birds have placed it, probably
on the horizontal limb of a birch. Doubtless it will be
occupied by the female, for it seems that the male takes
Httle or no part in family affairs after incubation begins.
As far as known, all Hummingbirds lay two white e^gs
— frail, pearly ellipses, that after fourteen days' incuba-
tion develop into a tangle of tiny dark limbs and bodies,
which no one would think of calling birds, much less
" winged gems."
PERCHING BIRDS. (ORDER PASSERES.)
Flycatchers. (Family Tyrannid^.)
Doubtless, every order of birds has had its day when,
if it was not a dominant type, it was at least sufficiently
near it to be considered modern ; and as we review what
is known to us of that great series of feathered forms,
from the Archseopteryx to the Thrushes, we can real-
ize how varied has been the characteristic avifauna of
each succeeding epoch from the Jurassic period to the
present.
Now has come the day of the order Passeres, the
Perching Birds ; here belong our Flycatchers, Orioles,
Jays, Sparrows and Finches, Yireos, Swallows, Warblers,
"Wrens, Thrushes, and many others. A recent authority
edassifies birds in thirty-four orders, but fully one half of
122 KINGBIRD.
the thirteen thousand known species are included in the
single order Passeres. The North American members
of this order are so alike in more important structural
details that tliej are placed in but two suborders, the
suborder Clamatores, containing the so-called Songless
Perching Birds, and the suljorder 0 seines, containing the
Song Birds. The Flycatchers are the only members of
the suborder Clamatores in Eastern North America.
They differ from the Oscines, or true Song Birds, in
always having ten fully developed primaries, in having
the tarsus rounded behind as well as in front, and chiej&y
in the anatomy of the syrinx, or voice-producing organ.
In the Oscines this possesses four or five distinct pairs of
intrinsic muscles, while in the Clamatores it has less than
four pairs of muscles, and is not so highly developed.
Flycatchers are the Hawks of the insect world. Their
position when resting is erect, and they are constantly on
the watch for their prey, which is captured on the wing,
with a dexterity Hawks may well envy. The bill is
broad and flat and the gape large, as in other fly-catching
birds. After darting for an insect, as a rule, they return
to the same perch, a habit which betrays their family
afiinities, though it is occasionally practiced by some
other birds.
Among our Eastern Flycatchers the Kingbird un-
doubtedly deserves first rank. In books he is sometimes
Kingbird called the Tyrant, but the name is a
Tymiuuistyraunus. libel. The Kingbird is a fighter, but
Plate XXX. i-^g jg j^Q^ g^ bully, and gives battle only
in a just cause. His particular enemy is the Crow, and
during the nesting season each Kingbird evidently draws
an imaginary circle about his home within which no
Crow can venture unchallenged. From his lookout on
the topmost branch of a neighboring tree the Kingbird
darts forth at the trespasser, charging him with a spirit
PliATE XLIV.
VESPER SPARROW.
Page 141.
Length, 6*10 inches. Upper parts grayish, black, and brown ; breast
and sides streaked with black and brown; belly white; lesser wing-
coverts chestnut ; outer tail-feathers more or less white.
CRESTED FLYCATCHER. 123
and fearlessness whicli no bird can withstand. It is a case
of " right makes might," added to a very dexterous use of
wings and bill. The Crow, if he be experienced, turns
tail at once and, beyond protesting squaivks^ makes no
attempt to defend himself. But the Kingbird is deaf to
pleas for mercy ; he too has had experience, and well
knows that only his own watchfulness has saved his eggs
or young. Far in the distance he relentlessly pursues his
foe, leaving him only wlien he has administered a lesson
which will not be forgotten. Then he returns to his post
and, with crest erect and quivering wings, gives voice to
cries of victory.
Bee-keepers accuse the Kingbird of a taste for honey-
bees, but the examination, made by Prof. Beal, of two
hundred and eighteen Kingbirds' stomachs shows that
the charge is unfounded. Only fourteen stomachs con-
tained remains of bees, most of which were drones, while
sixty per cent of the Kingbirds' food was found to con-
sist of injurious insects.
Kingbirds ^vinter in Central and South America, re-
turning to us in the spring about May 1, and remaining
until September. Their nest is a compact, symmetrical
structure of weed stalks, grasses, and moss, lined with
plant down, fine grasses, and rootlets, and is usually placed
at the extremity of a limb about twenty feet from the
ground. The eggs, three to five in number, are white,
spotted with chocolate.
The Crested or Great Crested Flycatcher is, as a rule,
not so common as the Kingbird, and its habits prevent it
Crested Flycatcher, f^'^m being so easily observed. King-
Myiarchus crinitus. birds can be sceu whenever heard, but
Plate XXXI. yQ^-j ^^j^y Yie?iY the Greatcrest's whistle
many times before you see the whistler. Generally he
lives in the woods high up in the trees, but he is also
found in old orchards. His call, like an exclamation,
124, PECEBE.
rinffs out above all other birds' notes. What ! he seems
to say, and, as though hearing something which not only
surprised but amused him, follows this call with a chuck-
ling wldstle.
The Greatcrest arrives from the south about May 7,
and remains until September. Nesting is begun early in
June, a hollow limb being the home usually selected. In
collecting its nesting materials, the bird disj^lays a very
singular trait, and gives evidence of the stability of habit.
AVith rare exceptions it places a bit of cast snake-skin in
its nest. Various reasons have been advanced to account
for this singular habit, but none of them is satisfactory.
Recently Lieutenant Wirt Robinson has discovered that
one of the commonest and most generally distributed spe-
cies of this genus in South America places cast snake-skin
in its nest, and it is well known that the Arizona Crested
Flycatcher follows the same custom. The habit is there-
fore widespread, and is common to birds living under
greatly varying conditions. Rather than consider it of
especial significance in each species, it seems more reason-
able to believe that it is an inheritance from a common
ancestor, and has no connection with the present sur-
roundings of at leist those species living so far from the
center of distribution of this tropical genus as our 3Iyi-
archus crinitns.
The Phoebe is domestic ; he prefers the haunts, or, at
least, handiwork of man, and when not nesting on a beam
Phcebe '^^ ^ barn, shed, or piazza, selects the
Sayornix phcfhe. shelter of a bridge for a home. Here
Plate XXXII. jjg places his nest of moss and mud ; a
structure of generous proportions, for the Phoebe's family
may number five or six.
Flycatchers, because of the nature of their food, usu-
ally make extended migrations. For the same reason
they arrive late in the spring and depart early in the
Plate XLV.
Page 142.
CHIPPING SPARROW.
Length, 5-35 inches. Summer plumage, forehead black ; crovm bright
chestnut ; back black, brown, and gray ; under parts grayish wliite ;
bill black. Winter plumage, similar, but crown like back; bill brownish.
LEAST FLYCATCHER. 125
fall ; but the Phoebe is an exception to this rule. Not
only does he mnter north of the frost line, but he comes
to us as early as March 20 and remains until October.
The Phoebe owes his name to his song oii jjeuyit-plioebe^
pewit-pheehe^ a humble lay uttered between vigorous
wags of the tail. This tail-wagging is a characteristic
motion, and also accompanies the Phoebe's call-note,
pee, pee^ which it utters at intervals.
The Least Flycatcher shares the Phoebe's preference
for the vicinity of houses and is most often found nesting
in our shade or fruit trees. The nest,
eas yea c er, -^^-,]jj^g ^]jg Phoebe's, is composed of
KinpuLona.z iniiiiiiius. ' ^
plant-down, fibers, and rootlets, and is
placed in the crotch of a tree. The eggs resemble the
Phoebe's in being white.
It is difficult to describe our smaller Flycatchers so
that even when in the hand they may be satisfactorily
identified, and it is quite impossible to describe them so
that from color alone they may be recognized in the field.
Fortunately, the calls of our commoner species are so
unlike that, when learned, there will be no difficulty in
naming their authors.
To say that the Least Flycatcher is five and a half
inches long, olive-green above and grayish white below,
does not aid one in distinguishing it from several of its
cousins ; but when I add that its call is a snappy chehec,
chehec, the bird will be known the first time it is heard.
It is this call which has given the bird its common
name.
The Chebec comes to us in the spring, about April 25,
and remains until September.
You will rarely find two members of the same family
with more different dispositions than those of the King-
bird and Wood Pewee. Their natures might symbolize
war and peace, so combative is the Kingbird, so gentle the
126 WOOD PEWEE.
Pewee. As so often happens among birds, tlieir voices
are in keei^ing with their temperaments. The soft,
Wood Pewee dreamy i?ee-a-wee or jyee-a-wee ^eer of
Contopiis vircns. the Pewee is as well suited to its char-
Piate XXXIII. acter as the harsh, chattering cries of
victory are to the Kingbird's.
The Pewee is the last of our more common Fly-
catchers to come from the South, arriving about May 10,
and, like the Chebec, remaining until October. It is less
social than either the Chebec or the Phoebe. Forests
are its chosen haunts, but occasionally it is found on well-
shaded lawns and roadsides.
The Pewee's nest rivals the Hummingbird's m beauty.
It is a coarser structure, composed of fine grasses, rootlets,
and moss, but externally is thickly covered with lichens.
Usually it is saddled on a limb from twenty to forty feet
above the ground. The eggs, three or four in nimiber,
are white, with a wreath of dark brown spots around the
larger end.
Larks. (Family Alaudid^.)
This family contains the true Larks, birds with long
hind toe nails, and a generally brown or sandy colored
plumage, the Skylark being a typical 6j)ecies. There are
some one hundred species of Larks, but of these only the
Homed Lark and its geographical varieties are found
in this country.
The variation in color shown by the Horned Lark
throuo-hout its rano-e is remarkable. From the Mexican
Horned Lark tableland northward to Labrador and
otocoris nipeHris. Alaska no less than eleven different
Plate xxxiv. geographical races are known, each one
reflecting the influence of the conditions under which it
lives, and all intergrading one with another. Only two of
PI.ATE XLVI.
Page 143.
WHITE-THROATED SPARROW.
Length, 6*75 inches. Adult, lores and bend of wing yellow; crown
black and white; back chestnut-brown, black, and buff; throat white;
breast and sides grayish; belly white. Young, similar, but crown
more like back ; yellow markings duller.
HORNED LAEK. 127
these races are found in the eastern United States, the
Horned Lark and the Prairie Horned Lark, The former
visits ns in the winter; the latter occurs at all seasons,
but during the summer is found only in certain regions.
At this season it inhabits the upper Mississippi Valley,
whence it extends eastward through northwestern Penn-
sylvania and central New York to western Massachu-
setts. Prom October to April it may be found with the
Horned Lark as far south as South Carolina. The two
birds differ in size and color. The Horned Lark's wins:
averages -i'ST inches in length, the Praii-ie Lark's wing
averages but 4*08 inches in length ; the former's forehead
and eye-line are yellow, the latter's white.
Horned Larks are eminently terrestrial, rarely if
ever choosing a higher perch than a fence. "When on
the ground they do not hop, but walk or run. When
flushed they take wing with a sharp, whistled note, but
often return to the j)lace from which they started. When
nesting, they may be found in fields, pastures, and plains
in scattered pairs, but during the winter they are asso-
ciated in flocks, which resort to the vicinity of the sea-
coast or large open tracts in the interior. The nest is,
of course, built on the ground. The eggs, three or four
in number, are pale bluish or greenish white, minutely
and evenly speckled with grayish brown.
The Horned Lark, like its famous relative and many
other terrestrial species, sings while on the wing, soaring
high above the earth, and often repeating its song many
times before alighting. The effort is worthy of better
results, for the bird's song is simple and unmusical.
128 CROWS AND JAYS.
Crows, Jays, etc. (Family Corvidje.)
There are systematists -who thiuk that the members
of this family should hold the place usually assigned the
Thrushes, at the head of the class Aves. Leaving out of
the case anatomical details whose value is disputed, we
might object to a family of songless birds being given first
rank in a group whose leading character is power of
song. But while Crows and Jays may, from a musical
standj)oint, be considered songless, no one can deny their
great vocal powers. Song, after all, does not imjDly high
rank in bird-life, and some of the sweetest singers (among
others, some Snipe, and the Tinamous and "Wood Quail
of South America) are not members of the suborder of
Song Birds.
If, however, the relative intelligence of the two fam-
ilies be taken into account, there can be no doubt that
CorvidcB fully deserve to be considered the most highly
developed of birds. How many tales are told of the
human actions of the Raven, Rook, Jackdaw, Magpie,
Jay, and Crow !
Of the two hundred members of this family, six in-
habit eastern Korth America, by far the most common
being the Crow, l^o one of our birds
„ . ' is better known, and still, how ignorant
Uorvus amencanus. ^ ' ' o
we are of his ways ! I am not sure
that he does not know more about ours. "We have not
even recorded his notes, for, in spite of the current opin-
ion that the Crow's calls are restricted to caw, he has an
extended vocabulary. I am not aware that he ever
ascerids to the height of a love song, but that he can
converse fluently no one who has listened to him will
question. Of the variants of caw, each with its own
significance, there seems no end ; but if you would be
Plate XLVII. P^ge 144.
FOX SPARROW.
Length, 7-25 inches. Upper parts, wings, and tail bright reddish
brovs-n ; back and head mixed with a browner color ; under parts white
and bright reddish brown.
AMERICAN CROW. 129
impressed with the Crow's eloquence you must hear him
when, in the fancied privacy of his own flock or family,
he discusses the affairs of the day. His notes then are
low, and so varied in tone that one can not douht their
conversational character.
During the winter Crows assemble in large flocks
containing many thousand individuals, who nightly re-
turn to some roost, which perhaps has been frequented
for years. In March they begin to pair and the nest is
constructed early in April. It is a bulky affair of
sticks, lined chiefly with grapevine bark, and is placed in
a tree, usually about thirty feet from the ground. The
four to six eggs are bluish green, thickly marked with
shades of brown.
Crows share with Hawks the reputation of being
harmful birds. That they do much damage in the corn-
field is undeniable, but, after the examination of nine
hundred Crows' stomachs. Dr. Merriam, of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, states that the amount of good
done by the Crow in destroying grasshoppers, May
beetles, cutworms, and other injurious insects, exceeds
the loss caused by the destruction of corn. Moreover, if
the com be tarred before planting, the Crows will not
touch either the kernel or young sprout. The corn
should first be soaked in water overnight, and then
placed in a vessel containing enough soft tar to coat each
kernel. It should then be rolled in plaster of Paris or
wood ashes, so that it can be more easily handled.*
The Blue Jay, in his uniform of blue and white, is so
brightly colored, so large (he is nearly twelve inches in
length), and often so noisy, that every one knows him.
* See Barrows and Schwarz, The Common Crow, Bulletin No. 6,
United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology
and Mammalogy.
130 BLUE JAY.
Like tlie Crow, lie is with us throughout the year. Dur-
ing the summer he is not very common, and is remark-
ably quiet, but in September and Octo-
B ue Jay, -^^^ mifijrants arrive from the North, and
Cyanocitta cristata. i , . i , . ,
the birds are then abundant m bands.
These bands roam about the country like a lot of school-
boys out chestnutting, pausing wherever they find acorns
and chestnuts abundant, or leaving their feast to worry
some poor Owl whose hiding place they have discovered.
The Blue Jay's best friend could not conscientiously
call him a songster, but as a conversationahst he rivals
the Crow. I have yet to discover a limit to his vocab-
ulary, and, although on principle one may ascribe al-
most any strange call to the Blue Jay, it is well to with-
hold judgment until his loud, harsh jay ! jay ! betrays
the caller's identity. Not content with a language of
his own, he borrows from other birds, mimicking their
calls so closely that the birds themselves are deceived.
The Bed-shouldered, Bed -tail, and Sparrow Hawks are
the species whose notes he imitates most often.
The Blue Jay nests in the latter part of May, build-
ing a compact nest of rootlets in a tree ten to twenty
feet from the ground. The eggs are pale olive-green
or brownish ashy, rather thickly marked with varying
shades of cinnamon-brown.
Orioles, Blackbirds, etc. (Family Icterid^e.)
The popular names of many of our birds were given
them by the early colonists because of their fancied re-
semblance to some Old "World species. The fact that
some of these names are incorrect and misleading has
been pointed out scores of times, but they are now as
firmly fixed as the signs of the zodiac.
Plate XLVIII. Page 145.
JUNCO.
Length, 6-25 inches. Male, upper parts, throat, and breast slate-color ;
belly and outer tail-feathers white. Female, similar, but plumage more
or less washed with brownish.
BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 131
Tims the Robin is not a Robin but a true Thrusli,
the Meadowlark is not a Lark but a Starhno;, and the
Orioles are not Orioles at all, but members of a distinc-
tively American family having no representatives in the
Old World. This family contains one hundred and fifty
species, of which nearly one third belong in the genus
Irferu.^. The prevailing colors of the birds of this genus
are orange and black, hence their resemblance to the true
Orioles (genus Oriohrs) of the Old World.
Our Baltimore Oriole is a worthy representative of a
group remarkable for its bright colors. It is to these
Baltimore Oriole same colors that the bird owes not only
Icft'n/s gaibuia. its generic but its specific designation,
Plate XXXV. orange and black being the livery of
Lord Baltimore, after whom the bird was named.
The Baltimore Oriole, or, as it is also called, Firebird,
Golden Robin, or Hangnest, winters in Central America,
and in the spring reaches the latitude of New York city
about May 1. I always look for it when the cherry trees
burst into blossom, and at no other time does its beauti-
ful plumage appear to better advantage than when seen
against a background of white flowers. To the charm of
beauty it adds the attraction of song, a rich, ringing
whistle, which can be more or less successfully imitated,
when the bird immediately responds, challenging the
supposed trespasser on his domain.
The Baltimore's nest is a bag about five inches deep
and three inches in diameter, woven of plant-fibers,
thread, etc., and suspended from the terminal portion of
a limb, generally of an elm tree. The four to six eggs
are white, singularly scrawled with fine black lines, and
with a few spots or blotches.
The Orchard Oriole is neither so common nor so
gayly dressed as his brilliantly colored relative, and, being
fonder of orchards than lawns and elm-shaded highways,
132 ORCHARD ORIOLE.
is not so well known. The female is especially easy to
overlook, her suit of plain olive-green closely liarmoniz-
OrcHard Oriole, ing with the leaves in color. Young
Jcttrus spurius. niales at first exactly resemble her, but
riate xxxvi. ^jjg following spring return, wearing
their father's black cravat. In this plumage they might
readily be taken for another species, so little do they re-
semble their parents in appearance. The adult chestnut
and black plumage is not fully acquired until the sec-
ond, or perhaps even the third spring.
The Orchard Oriole winters in Central America, and
in the summer is found throughout the eastern United
States from the Gulf of Mexico to Massachusetts. It
arrives from the South about May 1, and is one of the
first birds to leave in the fall, rarely being seen after
September 1, Nesting is begun late in May. The nest
is pensile, but not so deep as that of the Baltimore Oriole,
having more the proportions of a Yireo's nest. It is
composed entirely of freshly dried greenish grasses, and
is suspended from near the extremity of a branch at a
height of fifteen to twenty feet. The three to five eggs
are bluish white, spotted, blotched, and scrawled with
black.
The song of the Orchard Oriole resembles that of his
orange-and-black cousin, but is far richer in tone and
more finished in character.
The male Redwing, with his black uniform and scar-
let epaulets, is a familiar inhabitant of our marshes, but
many who know him are not acquainted
Eed-winged Blackbird, ^^^^ j^.^ differently attired mate.
She wears a costume which above is
black streaked with buff and rust-color, and below is
striped dingy black and white, and is much more retiring
than her conspicuous husband. Her place is low in the
bushes or among the reeds near the nest with its pale
Plate XLIX. Page 146.
TEEE SPARKOW,
Length, 6-35 inches. Crown bright chestnut; back black, reddish
brown, and buf^'; under parts gra,yish; sides washed with brownish;
a blackish spot in the center of the breast.
PURPLE GRACKLE. 133
blue eggs, so singularly scrawled witli black. He perches
on the topmost branch of a neighboring tree, and doubt-
less supposes he is guarding his home below, when in
truth he is advertising his treasure to every passer-by.
The Redwing's liquid koiig-quer ree is pleasantly
suggestive of marshy places, but it is his early spring
music for which we should chiefly value him. The first
Robins or Bluebirds are somewhat unreliable signs of
spring. They are such hardy birds that it requires very
little encouragement from a February sun to send a few
skirmishers northward. We can not be sure whether
they represent the advance guard or are individuals who
have had the courage to winter with us. But when early
in March the Redwings come, then we know that the tide
of the year has turned. With perennial faith in the sea-
son they come in flocks of hundreds, singing their spring-
time chorus with a spirit that March winds can not sub-
due.
About the time the Redwings come, late in Februaiy
or early in March, we may ex]3ect the Purple Grackles
Purple Grackle, ^^ ^^'^^^ Blackbirds. ^ They migrate in
Quiscaiusquiscula. large flocks, and their chorus singing
Plate XXXVII. jg q^jte as inspiring as the springtime
concerts of the Redwing. There are two kinds of Crow
Blackbirds, known as the Purple Grackle and the Bronzed
Grackle. The former has iridescent bars on the back
and in the Northern States is found only east of the
Alleghanies and south of Massachusetts ; the latter has
the back shining, brassy, bronze, without iridescence, and
in the nesting season inhabits the country west of the
Alleghanies and north of Connecticut. The females of
both species are smaller and duller than the males.
Grackles are among the few of our land birds who
live in flocks all the year. They pass the winter and mi-
grate in larger companies, but when nesting are in smaller
ir'>4 BOBOLINK.
bands or colonies. Tliey generally select a pine grove,
often choosing one in a cemetery, park, or other locality
where they will not be disturbed. This may result in a
scarcity of food when the young are born, but, rather
than abandon a locality which experience has proved to
be safe, they make long journeys in search of food for
their nestlings. By watching the old birds one may then
easily learn where they live. Their flight is direct and
somewhat labored, and when going only a short distance
they '* keel " their tail-feathers, foldhig them upward
from the middle, an action which renders Grackles con-
spicuous and easily identifiable when on the wing. On the
ground they strut about with a peculiar walk, which, in
connection with their yellowish white eye, adds to the
singularity of their appearance.
The Grackle's nest is a bulky, compact structure of
mud and grasses. It is usually placed in trees, twenty to
thirty feet from the ground, but the bird may sometimes
ne.st in bushes or even in a "Woodpecker's deserted hole.
The three to six eggs are generally pale bluish green,
strikingly spotted, blotched, or scrawled with brown and
black. But one brood is raised, and when the young
leave the nest they roam about the country in small
bands, which later join together, forming the enormous
flocks of these birds we see in the fall.
The Bobolink's extended journeys and quite differ-
ent costumes have given him many aliases. Throughout
his breeding range, from JS'ew Jersey to Nova Scotia,
^ , ,. , and westward to Utah, he is known
Bobolink, , ., , i t-. i t i t
Dolichonyx whilo uestmg as the Bobohnk. in
oryzivorus. July and August he loses his black,
Plate XXX viil. ^^^ ^^^ ^j^-^^ wedding dress, and
gains a new suit of feathers resembling in color those
worn by his mate, though somewhat yellower. This is
the Eeedbird dress, and in it he journeys nearly four
N.
-^/
-/
L
^
nN
^^^
^^^
N ♦
,iV-rr :•
Plate L. Pages 146, 147.
^ EEDPOLL.
Length, 5-30 inches. Adult male, crown bright red; back brownish
black and grayish ; throat black ; under parts white, streaked with
black; breast pink. Adult female and young, similar., but no pink on
^^^''^' SN0WFL.4KE,
Length, 6-90 inches. Upper paits brown and black; wings and tail -
black and white ; under parts white ; breast and sides brownish.
BOBOLINK. 135
thousand miles to Ijis winter quarters south of the Ama-
zon.
The start is made in July, when he joins flocks of
his kind in the northern wild-rice [Zlzania aquatica)
marshes. Late in August he visits the cultivated rice
fields of South Carolina and Georgia, and it is at this sea-
son we so often hear the metallic tinlc. of passing migrants.
The rice is now in the milk, and the Rieebirds, or Oi'to-
lans, as they are called in the South, are so destructive to
the crop that it is estimated they directly or indirectly
cause an annual loss of $3,000,000. Some birds linger
as far north as New York until October 1, bat by this
time the leaders of the south-bound host have reached
Cuba, where they are called Chamhergo. From Cuba
they pass to the coast of Yucatan, and thence southward
through Central America or to the island of Jamaica,
where, because of their extreme fatness, they are known
as Butterbirds. Fi-om Jamaica they go to the mainland,
either of Central America, or by one continuous flight of
four hundred miles to northern South America, thence
traveling southward to their winter home.
The northward journey is begun in March or April,
and about the 25tli of the latter month the vanguard
reaches Florida. It is composed only of males, now
called Maybirds, all in full song. Let any one who
knows the Bobolink's song imagine, if he can, the effect
produced by three hundred birds singing together !
About May 1 Bobolinks reach the vicinity of Xew
York city. The females soon follow the males, and
early in June the birds are nesting. This is the glad
season of the Bobolink's year. For ten months he has
been an exile, but at last he is at home again, and he
gives voice to his joy in the jolliest tinkling, rip2:)ling,
rollicking song that ever issued from bird's throat.
In the fields made merry by the music of Bobolinks one
1 36 MEADOWLARK.
is almost sure to find Meadowlarks, They are strong,
legged walkers, and spend all their time while feeding
Meadowlark, ^^ the ground. Like all terrestrial,
8turru.Ua ma,jiia. protectivclj coloreJ birds, they often
Plate xxxix. ^j,^, ^^ escape observation by hiding in
the grasses rather than by flying. When perched in a
tree or other exposed position, they are among the shyest
of our smaller birds, rarely permitting a near approach ;
but when they fancy themselves concealed on the ground
they sometimes "lie as close" as Bob-whites. When
flushed they fly rapidly, alternately flapping and sailing,
showing as they fly the white feathers on either side of
their tail. These feathers are the Meadowlark" s best field
character. They are very conspicuous when he is on the
wing, and, when perching, if he is alarmed or excited, he
exposes them by nervously flitting or twitching his tail.
This movement is generally accompanied by a single
nasal call-note, which changes to a rolling twitter as the
bird takes wing. I^either of these notes give any indi-
cation of the sweetness of the bird's song, a high musical
whistle, clear as the note of a fife, sweet as the tone of a
flute. It is subject to much variation both individual
and local, but the song I oftenest hear in northern New
Jersey may be written :
^.
>iE^EEEEtl
When singing, the birds usually perch in an exposed po-
sition, generally choosing the topmost branches of a tree
or a dead limb.
The Meadowlark's nest is placed upon the ground, as
a rule, in a tuft of grasses which is arranged to form a
dome over it. The eggs, four to six in number, are laid
about May 15, and in color are white, spotted or speckled
with cinnamon or reddish brown.
Plate LI.
AMEKICAN CROSSBILL.
Pages U7, 148.
Length, 6-20 inches. Adult male, dull red ; back brownish ; wings and
tail blackish. Adult female and young, greenish ; back more or less
mottled with brownish ; the under parts grayish.
PINE GROSBEAK.
Length, 9*10 inches. Adult male, rose-pink ; back brownish ; lower
belly gray ; wings and tail brownish black. Adult female and young,
gray ; crown, upper tail-coverts, and breast washed with deep yellow.
COWBIRD. 137
Occasionally Cowbirds are seen during the winter
near New York city ; but, as a rule, tliey retire farther
Cowbird south at this season, and are first ob-
Molothrus ater. scrved there in the spring about March
Plate XL. 2:). They do not come in large flocks,
but singly or in small bands. The male may now be
seen perched in an exposed position on a treetop, calling
his long-drawn-out, glassy klucJc, tse-e-e. Later, when
wooing the female, he utters a curious, gurgling note,
resembling the sound made by pouring water rapidly
from a bottle, and accompanying it by motions which
suggest extreme nausea. We often see these birds feed-
ing near cattle in the pastures, always in small flocks, for
they do not pair nor even construct a nest, the female lay-
ing her egg in the nest of another and generally smaller
species. Few birds seem aware of the imposture, and
not only do they incubate the egg but they may attend
to the demands of the young Cowbird at the expense of
their own offspring, who sometimes die of starvation.
Even after leaving the nest the young parasite continues
its call for food, and when seeing a Maryland Yellow-
throat, or some other small bird feeding a clumsy fledg-
ling twice its size, one wonders it does not detect the de-
ception. The better we know birds the more strongly
are we impressed with their individuality. To one who
has no friends in feathers it seems pure fancy to endow
some insignificant " Chippy " with human attributes ; but
in reality there are as clearly defined characters among
birds as among men. To be convinced of the truth of
this statement we have only to compare the Cowbird, a
thoroughly contemptible creature, lacking in every moral
and maternal instinct, with the bird who constructs a well-
made nest, faithfully broods her eggs, and cares for her
young with a devotion of which mother love alone is
capable.
138 SONG SPARROW.
Sparro^w^s, Finches, etc. (Family Fringillid^.)
This, the largest family of birds, contains between five
hundred and fifty and six hundred species, and is repre-
sented in all parts of the world except the Australian re-
gion. Sparrows are the evergreens among birds. When
the leaves have fallen from the chestnut, oak, and maple,
the hemlock, pine, and cedar are doubly dear. So, when
the Flycatchers, "SYarblers, and Thrushes have left us, the
hardy Sparrows are more than usually welcome. Feed-
ing largely on seeds, which their strong, stout bills are
especially fitted to crush, they are not affected by the
changes in temperature which govern the movements of
strictly insectivorous birds.
Some species are wdth us throughout the year, some
come from the South in early spring and remain until
snow falls, others come from the far North to pass the
winter ; so that at no season of the year are we without
numbers of these cheery birds. Fortunately, some of our
best songsters are members of this family. Their music
is less emotional than that of the Thrushes, but it has
a happier ring — the music for every day.
It is the Song Sparrow who in February opens the
Song Sparrow, season of song, and it is the Song
.Udoquza/asrkua. Sparrow who in November sings its
Plate XLI. closing notes ; nor, except during a part
of August, has his voice once been missing from the choir.
His modest chant always suggests good cheer and
contentment, but heard in silent February it seems the
divinest bird lay to which mortal ever listened. The
magic of his voice bridges the cold months of early
spring ; as we listen to him the brown fields seem green,
flowers bloom, and the bare branches become clad with
softly rustling leaves.
Plate LII. Page 148.
AMERICAN GOLDFINCH.
Length, 5*10 inches. Adult male in summer, crown black; rest of body
yellow; wings and tail black and white. Ailulf female and males in
winter, upper parts grayish brown; crown yellowish; under parts
soiled whitish ; throat yellow.
SWAMP SPARROW. 139
You can not go far afield without meeting this singer.
He is not only our commonest Sparrow, but one of our
commonest birds. Generally you will find him on or
near the ground at the border of some undergrowth,
and if there be water near by, preferably a meadow
brook, his presence is assured. When flushed he will
doubtless make for the nearest thicket, " pumping " his
tail, as Thompson expressively says, in describing hk
somewhat jerky flight. Now he cpiestions you with a
mildly impatient chimp or trink, a call-note not to be
mistaken for that of any other species, when once you
have learned it. Equally diagnostic is the bird's spotted
breast with one larger spot in its center.
The Song Sparrow's nest is usually placed on the
ground, but sometimes a bush may be chosen for a nest-
ing site. The eggs, four or five in number, are bluish
white, thickly marked with reddish bro-wn. The Song-
Sparrow rears three broods each year, the nesting season
lasting from May to August.
The Swamp Sparrow, a well-named cousin of the
Song Sparrow, resembles his relative in his fondness for
Swamp Sparrow, ^^^® vicinity of water and habit of tak-
Meiospiza g"or<jiami. ing rcfugc iu low covcr. He is a true
Plate XLii. marsh or swamp bird, and is particu-
larly abundant in large marshes. His call is an insig-
nificant eheep^ while his song is a simple, sweet, but rather
monotonous tweet-tweet-tweet, repeated many times and
occasionally running into a trill.
The Swamp Spari-ow nests from northern Illinois
and Pennsylvania northward to Labrador. Its nest and
eggs resemble those of the Song Sparrow. It is migra-
tory in the northern part of the range, and is rare in win-
ter north of southern New Jersey.
Both the Song and Swamp Sparrow are, as we have
seen, birds of the lowlands, though the latter also inhab-
140 FIELD SPARROW.
its higher ground, but the two Sparrows now to be men-
tioned are birds of the uplands, rarely if ever living in
low, wet places.
An old hillside pasture, dotted with young cedars or
clumps of bushes, in which he may place his nest, is the
Field Sparrow, favorite home of the Field Sparrow.
Spizt/iapnf.-iiia. Here you may look for him early in
Plate XLiii. April. He is a rather shy bird, who
will fly some distance when alarmed, end then alight on
a bare twng near or at the top of some bush or sapling.
Very different this from the Song Sj^arrow's way of div-
ing into a bush.
From his exposed position he watches you and gives
you an equally good chance to watch him. Xote the
whitish, unstreaked breast, the reddish brown or sorrel
crown, the gray face and w^hitish ring about the eye, and
especially the pale brownish or flesh-colored bill. These
are all good marks, and if now you can hear him sing his
identity will be settled without question. His song is one
of the most pleasing I know. It is very simple but very
expressive, a sweet, plaintive cher-icee, cher-wee, cher-wee,
cheeo dee-e-e-e-e, which goes straight to one's heart. It is
sung most freely after sunset, and is in keeping with the
peacefulness of the evening hour. At this time, too, the
bird seems inspired to more than usual effort, and its or-
dinary song is often so elaborated and prolonged as to be
scarcely recognizable.
The song season ends in the latter part of August,
and, although the birds are with us until ISTovember, I
have rarely heard them sing in the fall.
The Vesper Sparrow, Grass Finch, or Bay-^vinged
Bunting — for he bears all three names — prefers more
open grounds than the Field Sparrow selects. There is
something free and spirited about this bird r.nd its song
which demands space for its proper development. Xo
PliATE LIII. Paoe 149.
PURPLE FINCH.
Length, 6*20 inches. Adult male, rose-pink; bacli brownish ; lower belly
white; no white in wings. Aduli female and young, upper parts streaked
brownish and grayish ; under parts white, streaked with brownish;
bill rounded on top; a tuft of bristly feathers over the nostrils.
VESPER SPARROW. 141
swamp or thicket will do for liim, but in great broad fields
he is at home. If a roadway leads through his haunts,
Vesper Sparrow, J^^ may often see him on the ground
Fooctttts ffraiuineus. ahead of you, and when he flies the
Plate XLIV. white feathers shown on either side of
his tail will give you an excellent clew to his identity.
Probably he will fly on ahead a little way and alight
again in the road, or a longer flight may lead him to a
neighboring fence or the upper branches of a more dis-
tant tree. It is from positions of this kind that he most
often sings. With him song is evidently a matter of im-
portance. He can not, like many birds, sing between the
mouthfuls of a meal, but ascending to his perch he gives
perhaps half an hour entirely to music, resting motionless
between the intervals of each song.
It is impossible to satisfactoril}- describe this song.
It resembles that of the Song Sparrow, but is finer and
wilder. It opens with one low note, followed by two
higher ones, while the Song Sparrow begins with three
notes, all of the same kind.
The Vesper Sparrow is migratory, coming to us with
the Field Sparrow early in April and remaining until
November. Its nest is placed on the ground, and the
bluish or pinkish white speckled eggs are laid early in
May.
It is strange, is it not, that the only bird we all detest
should also be the only one who insists on sharing our
homes with us. The House or English
House Sparrow, o • j x /? j.i x- ^
D ; . • Sparrow, is a product oi the tunes ; a
Fasser domesticiis. r ' ir '
remarkably keen-witted bird, who, like
a noxious weei. thrives and increases where a less hardy
species could not exist.
This harsh-voiced little gamin soon detects and avoids
anything like a systematic attempt to entrap him, and,
being productive past all belief, seems likely to completely
142 CHIPPING SPARROW.
overrun tlie land. He was introduced into this country
in 1851, and in 1870 was found only in the cities of the
Atlantic States. Now he has spread over the greater
part of the United States and Canada.
If he were restricted to the cities we should have only
his never-ceasing, maddening chatter and our soiled walls
to complain of ; but he has invaded not only the towns
and villages and the neighboring houses, but visits also
our grain fields and fruit orchards, our woods and marshes.
No effective method for his extermmation has been de-
vised, and I fear we must accept the Sparrow as a j^enalty
for the shortsightedness and ignorance which permitted
us to meddle with the laws of Nature.
If we except this ever-present nuisance the Chippy
is the most domestic of our Sparrows. He seems thor-
Chipping Sparrow, ^Uglily at home alwut our doorsteps ; a
s^usiUa sociaiis. Contented, modest little bird wdio ap-
Piate XLV. parcutly tries hard to believe in the
goodness of human nature, even though he meets with
l)ut little encouragement. One w^onders why he has not
long ago given up the attempt to make friends with us,
so rarely do we show any appreciation of his advances.
The house cat is Chippy's chief enemy. Crouching and
crawling, waiting and watching, she misses no opportunity
to pounce on an unsuspecting bird. It is surprising that
any escape. But each spring, about April 10, the Chippy
comes back to us after a winter in the cotton, corn, and
broom-sedge fields of the South, and soon we hear his
unpretentious, monotonous cMpjyy-cMppy-cMpjyy^ many
times repeated, and occasionally running into a grasshoj)-
perlike trill.
About a month later we may find further evidence of
his too often misplaced trust in a neat, hair-lined nest
l>uilt in the vines on the veranda or a neighboring tree.
The eggs are unexpectedly pretty, a bright blue or bluish
Plate LIV. Page 150.
BOSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK.
Length, 8'10 inches. Adtilt male, crown and back black; rump white;
throat black; breast rose-red ; belly white. Adult female, upper parts
dark brown and buff ; a white line over eye ; under parts buffy,
streaked with brownish ; under wing-coverts orange.
WHITE-THROATED SPAKROW. 143
green, sj)Otted, chiefly at the larger end, with cirmamon-
brown or blackish markings.
Up to this time the Chippy has given us a good oppor-
tunity to see his chestnut cap and black forehead, but
when the nesting season is over he will change these for
a cap to match his coat, and with others of his kind gather
in old, weedv fields, remainiim- there until cold weather
drives him southward.
About the time of the first frost a new Sparrow will
appear in the hedgerows and thickets and the under.
growth of the woods. The white patch
Sparrow on his throat may aid in his identifica-
Zonotrichia uibicoUis. tion as the White-throatcd Sparrow, a
Plate XLVi. jSTorthern bird who in the summer
nests from northern New England northward, and in
Avinter is found from southern New England to the Gulf
of Mexico.
He is disposed to be rather quiet for several days
after his arrival, and, beyond a few low notes addressed
to his companions, has little to say ; but if you whistle
to him even a poor imitation of his song, nearly every
bird in the company will hop up from the tangle of
branches and, perching on the. outer twigs, look for the
friends who called. Perhaps some may essay a tremulous
response, but for a week or more they will make few at-
tempts to sing. Later, you will hear the sweet, plaintive
notes that give to this bird the name Peabody-bird.
The White-throat's call-notes are a low tseej) and a
very characteristic sharp chinl; which has been well
likened by Mr. Bicknell to the sound of a marble cut-
ter's chisel. At this season the White-throats roost to-
gether in flocks of varying size, and if you chance to be
near their home at bedtime you will hear this chink note
given as a "quarriers' chorus." Finally, as the gloom
deepens, it will ceise, and from the dark depths of the
144 FOX SPARROW.
tliicket will come only the cozy, contented twitterings of
tlie birds wishing one another good night.
The interest with which one examines a flock of White-
throateJ Sparrows is intensified by the probability of
White-crowned finding their distinguished relative the
Sparrow, White-crown. In the Mississippi Yal-
ZonotricUa ley he is often common, but in the
leucophrys. ^t]antic States he is sufiiciently rare
to be a character of importance.
The "White-crown differs from the White-throat in
having no white on the throat, which, like the breast, is
gray, and in having the space before the eye black in-
stead of yellow or white. In the fall his crown is brown,
with a paler line through its center.
Near l^ew York city I look for the White-crown
in September and October, and again about May 15.
Thompson describes its song as '" like the latter half of
the White-throat's familiar refrain, repeated a number
of times with a peculiar sad cadence and in a clear, soft
whistle."
Some fine day about the middle of March you may
hear a song so unlike any 3'ou have ever heard, that be-
Fox Sparrow ^^^*® ^^*^ singer ceases you will know
Passeveiia iiiaca. you are on the verge of a discovery.
Plato XLVII. rpi^^ song is loud, exceedingly sweety
and varied. Its richness of tone seems to accentuate the
bleakness of the bird's surroundings. It is a song for
summer, not for leafless spring; but heard at this sea-
son it seems all the more attractive, and with pleasurable
excitement you hasten toward the second growth, near
the border of which the bird is perched. His large size
and bright reddish brown upper parts readily distinguish
him from other Sparrows, and, in connection with his
spotted breast, give him a general resemblance to a Hermit
Thrush, for which bird he is sometimes mistaken ; but a
PliATE LV.
Page 151.
TOWHEE.
Length, 8-35 inches. Adult male, upper parts, throat, and breast
black ; belly white ; sides reddish brown. Adult female, similar, but
black replaced by brownish.
JUNCO. lio
glance at his sliort, stout bill at once shows his family rela-
tionships, and you should have no difficulty in identifying
him as the Fox Sparrow.
A month later he will leave us for his summer home
in the far North, but in October and November his
ringing notes may again be heard as he pauses a day or
two on his journey southward.
After the Fox Sparrows go, our bird-life is reduced to
its winter elements — that is, permanent residents and win-
Junco ^^^ visitants. Of the latter the Junco
junco hyemaiis. or Slate-colored Snowbird is the com-
Piate XL VII I. monest and most generally distributed.
Althouo-h we call this bird a winter visitant, he is with
us nearly eiu;ht months in the year, arriving late in Sep-
tember and remaining until early May.
The Junco is one of the birds whose acquaintance can
be easily made. His suit of slaty gray, with its low-cut
vest of white, is not worn by any other of our birds ; and
while some species show white outer tail-feathers in flight,
the Junco's seem to be more than usually conspicuous.
Except when nesting, Juncos associate in loose flocks
of from ten to fifty. Generally you will find them feed-
ing on the ground near evergreens, into which, when dis-
turbed, they will fly with a twittering note. If they are
excited by your appearance you will hear a sharp, kissing
call ; but if unalarmed they will utter a rapidly repeated
cheiv-chew-chew^ expressive of the utmost contentment.
In March and April, before leaving for their summer
home in northern New England or the crests of the
Alleghanies and Catskills, the Juncos sing a simple trill
or low, twittering warble. Modest in manner and attire,
there is nothing of especial interest in the Junco's habits,
and only bird-lovers can understand what a difference his
presence makes in a winter landscape. It brings a sense
of companionship ; it is a link between us and Natui-e.
146 TREE SPARROW AND REDPOLL.
The bird's cheeiy twitter is as welcome as a raj of sun-
light on a cloudj day.
With the J uncos we may often find a company of
Tree Sparrows or Winter Chippies. They resemble our
Tree Sparrow familiar Chipping Sparrow, but the
Spizdiamouticoia. blackisli dot in the center of their
Plate XLix. breasts is a good distinguishing mark.
Then, too, the true Chippies all leave for the South in
IS^ovember, while the Winter Chippies come in October
and remain until April.
Tree Sparrows are sociable birds, mth apparently the
best of dispositions. They are usually found in small
companies, each member of which seems to have some-
thing to say. Watch them feeding on an old weed stalk
left uncovered by the snow. It bends beneath the weight
of half a dozen birds, but, far from attempting to rob one
another, they keep up a conversational chatter bespeakmg
the utmost good fellowship. Too-ld-it, too-ld-it, each one
calls, and I have only to remember this note to bring
clearly to mind a bright winter morning with the fresh
snow crystals sparkling in the sunshine, and in the dis-
tance a tinkling chorus of Tree Sparrows at breakfast.
Another winter associate of the Junco's, and an inti-
mate friend of the Tree Sparrow's, is the Redpoll, Red-
EedpoU P*^^^ Linnet, or, as he is sometimes
Acanthis linaria. Called, Rcd-capped Chippy. The Red-
Plate L. pqIj jjgg^g ij^ i\yQ faj. Xorth, and the
extent of his southern journeys depends very much upon
the supply of food he finds in his winter wanderings.
When there are seeds in abundance north of the United
States, we do not see many of these birds, but if the
larder fails they may come into I^ew England in great
numbers, and a few may venture as far south as Virginia.
One can not tell, therefore, when to expect them, but it
is well to be on the lookout from November to March.
PIjAtb LVI. Page 155.
DICKCISSEL.
Length, 6*00 inches. Adult male, back black, chestnut, and grayish;
lesser wing-coverts bright chestnut ; chin white; throat black ; breast
yellow ; belly white. Adult female, upper parts streaked black and
grayish ; throat white ; breast yellowish, with black streaks ; belly
white.
SNOWFLAKE AND CROSSBILL. 147
With tlie Tree Sparrows and Jiincos, Redpolls feed on
the seeds of plants left uncovered bj the snow, and they
also include birch buds in their fare.
None of our wiilter birds better illustrate the flock-
ing habit than the Snowflakes, Snow Buntings, or, as they
Snowflake are also called. White Snowbirds. With
riectrophenax nivaUs. a Uniformity of movement which would
Plate L. p^^ ^Q shame the evolutions of the best-
drilled troops, they whirl over the snow-clad fields, wheel-
ing to right or left, as though governed by a single
impulse. Suddenly they swing downward into a weedy
field, alighting on the snuw or ground, where they riin —
not hop about — like little beach birds. Sometimes, it is
said, they sing on the wing while with us, but their usual
note is a low chirp. They are terrestrial birds, and, al-
though they may often perch on fences or buildings, are
rarely seen in trees.
Snowflakes nest within the Arctic Circle, and, like
other of our winter birds that come from the far North,
are irregular in their movements. As a rule they do not
wander much south of Long Island and northern Illinois,
but occasionally they go as far as Virginia and Kansas,
and are thus among the possibilities which add so much
to the pleasure of winter days in the field.
The Crossbill is a possibility at any season. None of
our birds is more erratic in its migrations. As a rule, it
is found in the Middle States only be-
American Crossbill, tv r i
Loxia curvirostm twccn November and March, but I
minor, have Seen it in Central Park, New
York city, as late as May. In the
higher parts of the Alleghanies and in northern New
England it is resident throughout the year. Crossbills
usually wander as far south each winter as Connecticut,
but beyond this are of irregular occurrence.
They feed almost entirely upon the seeds of pines, and
11
us PINE GROSBEAK.
are not often seen far from coniferous trees. Their sin-
gular bill might, at first glance, be considered misshapen,
but if you will watch a Crossbill push his crossed mandi-
bles beneath the scale of a pine cone, and with a quick
twist force it off and secure the seed at its base, you will
readily admit that for the bird's purposes his bill could
not be easily improved.
In hunting for Crossbills it is a good plan to look
through the woods for falling scales of pine cones, and
when you. see a shower of them whirling softly down-
ward it behooves you to learn the cause of their descent.
The birds often follow them to the ground, to secure the
seeds which have dropped there.
Crossbills fly in compact flocks, and often utter a
sharp, clicking note while on the wing. Their song is
sweet and varied but not loud.
Pine Grosbeaks are among our rarer winter visit-
ants. They come as far south as Massachusetts in vary-
Pine Grosbeak ^^S numbers, and occasionally reach
Firdcolaeriuchator. Counecticut, but SOUtll of this point
Plate LI. j^j.g q£ very infrequent occurrence. At
irregular intervals Pine Grosbeaks become abundant dur-
ing the winter in New England, when, because of their
size, they attract general attention. They usually resort
to coniferous trees, upon the seeds of which they feed,
but they also eat berries and buds, and are said to be espe-
cially fond of the fruit of the staghorn sumach.
1^0 one seeing the Goldfinch or Yellowbird in his
summer costume of o-old and black would imag-ine that so
Goldfincli dainty a creature could brave the storms
Spinits trisfis. of wiutcr ; but late in the season, when
Plate Lii. |-j'g i^fyyYie life is ended, he changes the
gay wedding dress for a plainer suit, and joins the ranks
of winter birds.
I wish that every one knew the Goldfinch. His gen-
PiiATE LVII. Page 161.
CEDAR WAXWING.
Length, 7-20 inches. Grayish brown; upper tail-coverts gray; lower
belly yellowish; end of tail yellow; secondaries sometimes with red,
sealing-wax-like tips ; stripe through face black.
GOLDFINCH. 149
tie ways and sweet-disposition are never-f ailing antidotes
for discontent. One can not be lonsj near a flock of
these birds without being impressed by the refinement
which seems to mark their every note and action. They
show, too, a spirit of contentment from which we may
draw more than a passing lesson. Hear me^ hear ine^
dearie^ they call as they feed among the weeds or on the
birch buds, and, no matter how poor the fare, they seem
thankful for it. The seeds of the dandelion, thistle, and
sunflower are among their favorites ; and if you would
attract Goldfinches as well as some other birds, devote a
corner of your garden to sunflowers.
The meal fijiisheJ, the birds launch into the air, and to
the tune of a cheery j)^^'-<-'J>''iC-o-ree, jjer-clac-o-rce^ go
swinging through space in long, bounding undulations.
In April the males regain their bright colors, but they
are evidently believers in prolonged courtshij), and, al-
though the nuptial dress is acquired so early, housekeep-
ing is apparently not thought of until June. Then a neat
home of bark and fine grasses, thickly lined with plant
down, is placed in a bush or tree, five to thirty feet from
the ground, and in it are laid three to six pale, bluish-
white eggs.
Now the song season has reached its height. Chonis
singing has been abandoned. Each bird has become an
inspired soloist, who, perched near his home or flying in
broad circles about it, pours forth a flood of melody. It
is an exceedingly attractive song, sweet and varied and
suggesting a Canary's, but still is no more like it than a
hothouse is like a tropical forest.
Creali\ creak, the notes are clear but faint, and may
Purple Finch come from any place beyond arm's reach.
CarpoiiaciiKp'irpure'is. Tliey are the Purple Finch's flight-
Plate Liii. qqWq ; one might think his wing-joints
needed oiling. Alighting on the topmost twig of a
150 PUEPLE FINCH.
forest tree, he utters a low, wild, questioning whistle.
With crown-feathers slightly erect he seems alert and
restless, and before we can fairly see him is off again to
parts unknown.
Purple Finches, in small companies, may often be
seen feeding near the ground with Goldfinches, but if
alarmed they soon return to the tree tops. The old males
may be known by their pinkish red color, which is bright-
est on the head and breast, and fades to brownish on the
lower back and tail and white on the belly. The young
males and females are Sparrowlike in appearance, the
upper parts being dark grayish brown, the under parts
white, streaked with dusky. A whitish line passing over
the eye is a characteristic mark.
During the winter Purple Finches are irregularly dis-
tributed throughout most of the Eastern States, but in
summer they are not found south of northern New Jer-
sey. They now become more social and may nest in our
gardens. Generally a coniferous tree is selected, and the
nest of twigs, grasses, and rootlets is placed at a height of
about twenty feet. The eggs, four to six in number, are
blue, spotted with dusky about the larger end.
Count yourself fortunate if a Purple Finch makes his
home near yours. He may appropriate a few buds and
blossoms, but he will repay you with music and leave you
his debtor. His song is a sweet, flowing warble ; music
as natural as the rippling of a mountain brook.
Some morning early in May you may meet the Kose-
breasted Grosbeak, just returned from a winter's sojourn
in South America. Perhaps his fame
Rose-breasted^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^ ^^^^^ preceded him, when you will
Zameiodia ' in a mcasure be prepared for his charms
ivdoviciana. of soug and plumige, and so miss the
Plate Liv. ]^eener pleasure of surprise ; but to me
he appeared as a revelation, and after fifteen years I still
Plate LIX.
EED-EYED VIEEO.
Pages 164, 165.
Length, 6-25 inches. Crown gray, bordered by black and white ; back,
wings, and tail olive-green ; under parts wuite.
TELLOW-THEOATED VIEEO.
Length, 5.95 inches. Crown and back greenish yellow ; rump gray ;
breast bright yellow ; belly white ; wing-bars white.
TOWHEE. 151
find it difficult to believe that, -unkiiown to me, this beau-
tiful creature could long have been an inhabitant of raj
woods.
Tlie Grosbeak prefers young second growths, with a
liberal proportion of oaks. In one of these trees he will
doubtless build his nest, a structure so lightly made that
one can almost see the blue, spotted eggs from below.
The male is not only an ardent lover but an admirable
hnsljand, and, unlike most brightly attired birds, shares
with his mate the task of incubation, and, it is said,
sings while on the nest. His mate is so unlike him in
color that few would suspect their relationship. She
suggests an overgrown female Purple Finch, with the
eye-stripe especially prominent ; but if you should chance
to see the under surface of her wings, you would find
that they were lined with gold. However, the call-notes
of both sexes are alike — a sharp, characteristic j)eelv^ which
you will have no difficulty in recognizing after you ha\'e
learned it.
The Grosbeak's song will remind you of a Robin's,
but it is in truth a much higher tyi^Q of bird music.
It is a joyous carol, expressive of a happy disposition
and a clear conscience.
The Towhee, or Che^vink, is an important member of
any bird community. He comes early — April 20 may
Towhee ^^^^ \^ym. with us — and he stays late,
Pifiio sometimes remaining until iS^ovember 1.
erythropUhalmus. During this period there is not an hour
of the day when you can not find a
Chewink if you know how to look for him. At midday
you will perhaps have to summon him by a whistled to-
whee from the depths of his bushy home on the border of
a wood or thicket ; but he will soon respond, and with a
flyff-fli^(ff of his short, rounded wings, fly jerkily up to
inquire what's wanted.
152 INDIGO BUNTING.
Some birds, such as the Red-ejed Yireo, can sing just
as well while hunting food as at any other time ; in fact,
I do not remember ever seeing a Ked-eje pause long
in its search, for insects — song and search go on together.
But with the Che wink singing is a serious matter, not to
be associated with the material question of food ; so, when
singing, he abandons the dead leaves he has been tossing
about so vigorously, and, mounting a perch, becomes an
inspired if not gifted musician. Sweet hird, sing, a friend
writes it, the " sing " being higher, sustained, and vibrant.
To this there is often a refrain which suggests an an-
swering, tremulous I^ll try.
Matins or vespers over, the Chewink returns to
the ground and resumes his occupation of scratching
among the leaves for breakfast or supper, as the case
may be.
The Chewink's nest is placed on the ground, often in
dried grass, beneath a tangle of running wild blackberry.
The eggs, four or five in number, are white, finely and
evenly speckled with reddish brown.
There are three birds who sing not only through the
heat of midsummer but are undaunted by the warmth of
a midday sun. They are the Wood
flTin^y^^^ea. P^woe, the Ecd-eyed Vireo, and the In-
digo-bird or Bunting. The Pewee and
Vireo, singing dreamily from the shady depths of a tree,
carry the air to the hummed accompaniment of insects;
but the Bunting, mounting to an upper branch, gives
voice to a tinkhng warble, more in keeping with the
freshness of early morning than the languor of noon.
July, July, sum^ner-s^imme?'' s here; morning, noontide,
evening, list to me^ he sings so rapidly that human tongue
can scarce enumerate the words fast enough to keep pace
with him. The Indigo-bird is in song when he comes to
Us from the South early in May, but it is not until other
Plate LVIII.
Page 162.
NORTHERN SHRIKE.
Length, 10-30 inches. Adult, upper parts gray; tail black and white ;
under parts white, with blackish bars ; lores grayish ; ear-coverts
black. Young, similar, but plumage washed with brownish.
CARDmAL. 153
singers have dropped from tlie chorus that his voice be-
comes conspicuous.
Not far away his mate is doubtless sitting on her blu-
ish white eggs in a nest low down in the crotch of a bush.
He in his deep indigo costume may be easily identified,
but she is a dull brownish bird, about the size of a Ca-
nary, sparrowlike in appearance, though with unstreaked
plumage, and a difficult bird to name, even when you
have a specimen in your hand, while in the bush, if silent,
she is a puzzle. But she is far too good a mother not to
protest if you venture too near her home, and her sharp
pit ov jpeet usually calls her mate, whom you Avill recog-
nize at once.
The Cardinal is about the size of a Towhee, with
plumage which, except for a black throat, is almost
wholly rosy red. Seeing a mounted
-, ,. ,. ,'. ,. Cardinal, one mia;ht imagine that he
CardtnaCis caramalis. ' _ ~ ^ _ ~_
was a conspicuous bird in life and easy
to observe ; but the truth is that, in spite of his bright
colors, the Cardinal is a surprisingly difficult bird to see.
You may often hear his sharp, insignificant tsip without
catching a glimpse of the caller, so well can he conceal
himself. His olive-brown mate is, of course, even more
difficult to find, and when you do see her you would
hardly suspect the relationship were it not for her actions
and the striking crest worn by both sexes.
The Cardinal's song is a rich, sympathetic whistle.
His mate also sings at times, and I carry in my memory
a musical courting I once observed, in which a pair of
these beautiful birds were the actors. The song begins
with whee-you, whee-you, long-drawn notes, which are
followed by a more rapid hurry ^ hurry ^ hurry / quich,
quicl% quick,, and other notes difficult of description.
The Cardinal is a bird of the Southern rather than of
the Northern States, and is rarely seen north of New
154 LARK FINCH.
York city. It is, however, a permanent resident tlirougli-
out its range, and to one who associates it with magnoHas
and yellow jessamine it seems strangely out of place amid
snowy surroundings.
The Cardinal builds its nest about four feet from the
ground in thickets, laying three or four eggs, which are
white or bluish white, speckled and spotted with grayish
or reddish brown.
In the Mississippi Yalley and westward there are sev-
eral members of this family who are rarely found east
Lark Finch ^^ ^^^^ Alleghanies. Pronnnent among
Chondesies them is the Lark Finch, a handsome
grammacus. ]j[j.(\^ about six and a quarter inches
long, with ear-coverts and sides of the crown chestnut,
the back grayish bro^vn streaked with black, the outer
tail-feathers tipped with white, and the under parts
white, with a single black spot in the center of the
breast.
This is a migratory bird, arriving in southern Illinois
about the middle of April and remaining until September
or October. Mr. Ridgway, in his Birds of Illinois, says
that its favorite resorts are " fertile prairies and meadows
adjoining strips or groves of timber. In Illinois it evinces
a special fondness for cornfields, in which it builds its
nest at the foot of the stalks, while the male sings from
the fence or the top of a small tree by the roadside."
Its song, the same writer continues, is " composed of
a series of chants, each syllable rich, loud, and clear, in-
terspersed with emotional trills. At the beginning the
song reminds one somewhat of that of the Indigo-bird
(Passerina cyanea)^ but the notes are louder and more
metallic, and their dehvery more vigorous. Though
seemingly hurried, it is one contiimous gush of sprightly
music ; now gay, now melodious, and then tender beyond
description — the very expression of emotion."
Plate LX.
Page 167.
BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER.
Length, 5 -25 inches. Adult male, upper parts, breast, and sides black
and white ; belly white. Adult female, simil'';r, but with less black on
under parts.
DICKCISSEL. 155
Some thirty or forty years ago the Dickeissel, or
Black-throated Bunting, was a locally common bird in
Dickeissel ^^^^ Middle Atlantic States. !N"ow it is
Sjpiza americana rarely found cast of the AlleghanieSj
Plato L\ I. ,^j^j even in the Mississippi Valley its
range is becoming restricted, and it is of irregular distri-
bution.
It migrates in large flocks, the males in the spring
being several days in advance of the females. About
May 1 it reaches the latitude of Chicago, and by the mid-
dle of the month is mated. The nest is placed on the
ground, or in low trees or bushes ; the eggs, four or live
in immber, are pale blue.
In the work previously quoted from, Mr. Ridgway
writes of this species : " While some other birds are
equally numerous, there are few that announce their
presence as persistently as this species. All day long,
in spring and summer, the males, sometimes to the num-
ber of a dozen or more for each meadow of considerable
extent, perch upon the summits of tall weed stalks or
fence-stakes, at short iutervals, crying out : See, see —
Dick, Dick Cissel, Clssel ; therefore ' Dick Cissel ' is well
kno^vn to every farmer's boy as well as to all who visit
the country during the season pf clover blossoms and wild
roses, when ' Dame JS^ature 'ns in her most joyous mood."
Tanagers. (Family Tanagridje.)
The Tanagers, numbering some three hundred and
fifty species, are found only in America. Their home
is in the tropics, where they are among the most abun-
dant of birds. But two species reach the eastern United
States, the Summer Redbird of the South and our Scar-
let Tanager, both worthy representatives of a group
of birds which in brilliancy of color rival even the Hum-
156 SCARLET TANAQER.
mingbirds. The male Scarlet Tanager, with fire -red body
and jet-black wings and tail, is the most brightly plum-
aged of our birds. Seen against a
Scarlet Tanager, -^^^n background, light seems to radi-
Plranga erythromelas. -^ f, ^ • £ ^^ -r» ^
ate irom his glowing leathers. J5ut
the female, clad in dull olive-green, is so in harmony
with the color of her surroundings that she is not easily
discovered. The young male at first resembles his mother,
but has blackish wings and tail, and does not acquire the
full scarlet and black plumage until the following spring.
After the nesting season is over the male exchanges the
nuptial dress, which has rendered him so conspicuous, for
a costume similar to that worn by the young male.
The Scarlet Tanager spends the winter in Central and
South America with his numerous relatives, and in the
spring reaches the latitude of New York city about May
5, remaining until October. It frequents both high and
low woods, but prefers rather open growths of white oak.
Its nest is usually placed on the horizontal branch of an
oak limb. The three or four eggs are pale greenish blue,
with numerous reddish brown markings.
The Tanager's call-note is a characteristic cMp-churr ;
his song is not unlike the Robin's, but is not so free and
ringing. Mounting to the topmost branch, often of a
dead or partially dead tree, he sings. Look-up, way-up,
looh-at-me, tree-top^ and with frequent pauses repeats the
invitation.
Swallows. (Family Hirundinid^.)
Primarily, Swallows are remarkable for their power
of flight. Their long, bladelike wings show how well they
are fitted for life in the air; their small feet, on the
other hand, are of little ser\T[ce except in perching, and
give evidence of the effect of disuse (see Fig. 6).
Pl/ATE LXI.
Page 168.
MYRTLE WAEBLEK.
Length, 5-65 inches. Winter plumage, crown-patch, rump, and sides of
breast yellow ; back brown and black ; under parts black and white.
Summer plumage, similar, but upper parts gray and black ; more black
cJfi under parts.
BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER.
Length, 5-10 inches. Upper parts yellowish green; face brighter;
breast black ; beUy white.
SWALLOWS. 15
') I
The aerial ability of Swallows accounts for their wide
distribution, the eighty known specdes being represented
in all parts of the world. Only six of them inhabit the
northeastern States, but they are so active and so easily
observed, that they rank among our most abundant and
best-known birds.
Swallows are eminently insectivorous. The Tree Swal
!ow is known to feed on bayberries when its usual fare is
M-anting, but, with this exception, it is doubtful if any
but insect food passes a Swallow's bill from one year's
end to another. Recalling now the activity of Swallows,
which both necessitates a large supply of food and pro-
cures it, and we must realize that these birds are incal-
culably beneficial.
Both the feeding habits and powers of flight of Swal-
lows are such as their structure would lead us to expect,
but when we examine their nests we are amazed at the
architectural skill of builders so poorly provided with
tools. The large mud pocket of the Barn Swallow, the
clay retort of the Cliif Swallow, and the long burrow
which the Bank Swallow excavates, are surely not the
kind of homes we should expect these small-billed, weak-
footed, dainty creatures to constnict. "We will note, too,
that these feathered architects are quick to perceive and
take advantage of the new and favorable conditions for
nest-building found about the home of man.
The Bank, Rough-winged, and Tree Swallows, and
the Purple Martin, lay white eggs ; the eggs of the Barn
and ClifE Swallows are speckled with cinnamon, olive, and
reddish brown.
It is when nesting that Swallows best show one of
their strong characteristics — their sociability. Many birds
live in flocks during part of the year, but separate in pairs
when nesting; but most Swallows live on terms of such
intimacy that their nestn seem to be merely apartments in
158 SWALLOTTS.
one great dwellino;. A pLotograpli of part of a colony
of Cliif Swallows in Montana shows one hundred and
forty nests, nearly all of which adjoin one another.
The songs of Swallows are hnmble efforts, but are so
expressiv^e of the happy dispositions of the birds, and so
associated with scenes with which they are inseparably
connected, that the merry twitterings of these birds are
as dear to us as the voices of friends.
The sociability of Swallows does not end with the
nesting season, as it does with many birds that are then
brought into communities by force of circumstances.
When the young take ^ving, Swallows begin to collect
in flocks, which gradually unite, and in August and Sep-
tember form assemblages containing millions of individ-
uals. They generally make their headquarters in some
large marsh, where they roost in the reeds and grasses,
but they also resort to trees. Early in the morning they
scatter over the country in small bands, flying at a con-
siderable height, and during the day we may often see
them feeding over fields and ponds or resting on wayside
telegraph wires. Late in the afternoon they begin to re-
turn to their roosts. At first they fly slowly and circle
about to feed, but as the light fails they fly with increas-
ing swiftness, and the last comers shoot through the dusk
with incredible rapidity.
These remarks apply with equal truth to all our Swal-
lows ; it remains now to briefly mention the characters
by which they may be distinguished specifically. The
four common species are figured in the frontispiece,
which clearly shows most of their diagnostic marks,
which are: Tail forked, Barn Swallow; forehead whit-
ish, rump rusty. Cliff Swallow ; a band across the breast,
plumage without metallic colors, Bank Swallow ; breast
pure white, Tree Swallow.
ki
/"';
g •• ''^-
^
''"i^^PHV
^
^^^^^^BIk^^^'"'' /
^
r^^^L
i^^^Kl^^i^ '*
^/
i
Plate LXII. Page 169.
PtEDSTART.
Length, 5*40 inches. AJu/( male, band in wings; base of tail and sides
of breast deep salmon; belly white; rest of plumage black. Adult
female and young, similar, but salmon replaced by yellow; upper parts
grayish brown ; under parts white ; breast yellowish.
SWALLOWS. 159
The Barn Swallow is the most generally distributed
of our Swallows, its habits of nesting in outbuildings
„ _ ,, raakiiiff it at home wherev^er they offer
Bam Swallow, , *7 . . "^
CheUdon it a Suitable nesting place. It is about
erythroci aster, seven iiiclies long ; the upper parts and
ron i^-pice., giJes of the breast are steel-l)lue, the
forehead and throat chestnut, the rest of the under parts
paler ; the tail deeply forked and marked with white. Its
long tail is a most efficient rudder, permitting the abrupt
turns which make its flight more erratic than that of any
other of our Swallows. It skims low ov^er the fields, or
darts through the village streets with a rapidity and indi-
rectness which I never witness without astonishment.
The Barn Swallow arrives from its winter home in
the tropics about April 15 and remains until late in
September. Its nest is generally placed on a beam in
a barn or other outbuilding, and is composed of mud
and grasses lined with feathers.
The Cliff or Eave Swallow is less generally distributed
than the Barn Swallow. It nests in colonies, placing its
„,.^„ „ rows of mud tenements under cliff's in
Chff Swallow, , ^-^^ T , , ,
Pttrocheiidon the Wcst aud beneath the eaves of barns
lunifrons. jn the East. It becomes much attached
(Frontispiece.) ^^ ^^^^ locahty, and when undisturbed
returns to it year after year, arriving from the South
about May 1, and remaining until late September. It is
six inches long ; the forehead is whitish, the crown and
back steel-blue, the rump rusty ; the throat chestnut with
a blackish area ; the belly white.
Like the Cliff Swallow, the Bank Swallow nests in
colonies, and is very local during the breeding season. A
Bank Swallow, sandbank facing a stream or pond is
cuviada riparia. oftcu choseu for a homc. Into it a
(Frontispiece.) tuuuel two or three feet in length is
bored, and at its end a nest of grasses and feathers is built.
160 TREE SWALLOW.
The Bank Swallow winters in the tropics and reaches
us in the spring about April 20, remaining until late Sep-
tember. It is the smallest of our Swallows, measuring
only five inches in length, and is the only one, except the
Itousch-wino-eJ Swallow, which has no metallic coloring:
in its plumige, the back being plain brownish gray, the
under parts white, with a clearly defined brownish gray
band across the breast. The Rough-wing is a more south-
ern bird, being rare north of southern Connecticut. It
resembles the Bank Swallow, but differs chiefly in having
the whole breast brownish gray. It nests in holes in
banks, and also about stone bridges, trestles, and similar
stnictures.
Though very generally distributed, there are large
areas within the breeding range of the Tree Swallow
Tree Swallow where it is known only as a migrant.
Tacky cinda hicoior. In the wilder part of its range it nests
(Frontispiece.) |j^ hollow trces ; in the more settled
portions it uses bird-boxes. During recent years, as Mr.
Brewster has remarked, the always-present House Spar-
row has pre-empted the former abodes of the Tree Swal-
low, so that it no longer nests about our homes ; but as
a migrant its numbers are undiminished, and it is prob-
ably our most abundant Swallow.
Being the only Swallow to winter in the eastern
United States, the Tree Swallow is the first to arrive in
the spring, coming to us from Florida early in April. It
is also the last of its family to leave us in the fall, often
remaining near E"ew York citv until October 20.
Immature birds have the upper parts brownish gray
instead of shining steel-blue, as in the adult, but in either
plumage the bird may be known by its pui"e white under
pirts, which have given to it the name of "White-bellied
Swallow.
In the northern United States Martins are very local.
Plate LXIII.
Page 170.
OVEN-BIKD.
Length, 6-15 inches. Crown reddish brown, bordered by black; back,
wings, and tail olive-green ; under parts black and white.
CEDAR WAXWIXG. 161
They have long since abandoned their habit of building in
hollow trees, and now nest only about houses or in lawns
whore gourds or boxes are ei-ected for
Purple Martin, ^j^^-^ occupation. To these they return
Progne suoif<. ^ . . . ,
year after year, arriving m the spring
about April 25 and remaining until September. The
male is uniform steel-blue, and appears black in the air ;
the female is grayish, tinged with steel-bhie above ; the
breast is gray, the belly white. This is the largest of
our Swallows, measuring eight inches in length.
Waxwings. (Family Ampelid^.)
One of the two species of "Waxwing is a bird of the far
North ; the other, our Cedar Waxwing, is found through-
Cedar Waxwing, out North America. Waxwings pos-
Ampeiis cedrurum. scss iu an uuusual dcgrcc two charac-
Piate L\ II. teristics which are not supposed to be
associated — sociability and silence. None of our birds is
more companionable, none more quiet. In their fondness
for one another's society they seem to delay the pairing
season, and long after other birds have gone to house-
keeping they are still roving about in flocks. Finally,
late in June, they settle down and build a nest of generous
proportions, often in some fruit tree, about ten feet from
the ground. The three to five eggs are pale bluish gray
or putty-color, spotted with black or brownish black.
Waxwings fly in close rank and alight as near each
other as the nature of their perch will allow. They sit
very still, like little Parrots or Doves, but often raise and
lower their crests, and perhaps whisper a fine lisping note,
which is prolonged into a louder call — a string of beady
notes — as they take wing.
Their fare varies with the season — cedar berries, straw-
berries, cherries, both cultivated and wild, the berries
162 NORTHERN SHRIKE.
of tlie woodbine, sour gum, and others being taken in
turn.
In August the "Waxwing shows no mean gifts as a
flycatcher, while as a destroyer of the cankerworm he is
especially beneficial, repaying us with interest for the
fruit he may have appropriated earlier in the season.
The "Waxwing's wide range and ability to withstand
great extremes in temperature are doubtless due to the
ease with which it adapts itself to a change in fare. It
nests from Yirginia to Labrador, and winters from Massa-
chusetts to Costa Rica.
Shrikes. (Family Laniid^.)
The marked difference in the temperament of birds is
emphasized by finding among the song birds, who feed
Northern Shrike ^^^ fruit, seeds, and insects, a bird who
Laiiius boreaiis. in liis positioii aud choice of food is
Plate L\ III. truly hawklike. Shrikes are solitary,
never assemblino; in flocks or associatino- with other birds.
Their days are days of waiting, varied by a pounce upon
some unfortunate field mouse or dash into a flock of un-
suspecting Sparrows. But, while they resemble the Hawks
in these respects, their manner of capturing their prey dif-
fers from that of their larger prototypes. The Shrike
has a Hawk's bill but a SpaiTow's foot, and, lacking the
powerful talons which make so deadly a weapon, he cap-
tures his prey vrith his strong mandibles. Possibly it may
be due to his comparatively weak feet that he pursues the
singular custom of impaling his prey on some thorn or
hanging it from a crotch where he can better dissect it.
The Shrike, or Butcher-bird, as he is also called, be-
longs to a large family, but, with the exception of his
smaller cousin the Loggerhead, he is the only one of the
two hundred known species found in America. He nests
Plate LXIV. Page 171.
MARYLAND YELLOW-THKOAT.
Length, 5-30 inches. Adult male, face black, bordered by ashy; back
olive-green ; breast yellow ; belly paler. Adulf female, similar, but no
black on face ; under parts paler.
VIREOS. 163
within the Arctic Circle, and in October journeys south-
ward, rarely as far as Virginia, and remains in the United
States until April or May.
The Loggerhead Shrike is common in the Southern
States and Mississippi Valley, whence it has apparently
extended eastward through central New York to Ver-
mont and Maine. It nests in these States, but southward
to Maryland is known only as a rare migrant— a unique
case in distribution. It differs from the Northern Shrike
in being an inch and a quarter smaller, in the absence of the
wavy bars on the breast, which is pure white, and in hav-
ing jet-black lores and a narrow black hue across the fore-
head at the base of the bill. Its song is creahy and un-
musical, but the song of the Northern Shrike, as de-
scribed by Mr. Brewster, is " really pleasing," and " not
unlike that of tlie Thrasher, but more disconnected and
less loud and varied."
ViREOS. (Family Vireonid^.)
Vireos are gleaners, and are to be distinguished from
other tree-inhabiting, greenish birds of the same size by
their habit of carefully exploring the under surface of
leaves and various nooks and corners in the bark and
foliage, while the more active Warblers are flitting about
the terminal twigs and the Flycatchers are swinging out
in aerial loops at passing insects.
They are highly musical little birds, having songs and
call -notes which may be quickly recognized once they
are known. The nests and eggs of our four summer-
resident species are so much alike that they are to be
known only when accompanied by their owners. The
White-eyed Vireo inhabits thickets and, as a rule, builds
nearer the ground than the arboreal Red-eyed, Yellow-
throated, and Warbling Vireos. The nests are small,
12
164 RED-EYED VIREO.
pouchlike affairs of strips of pliable bark, bits of dead
wood, plant-fibers, tendrils, fine grasses, etc., firmly inter-
woven and suspended from tlie arms of a forked twig.
The eggs are white, with a few black or brownish black
spots, chiefly about the larger end.
The Yireos are an exclusively American family, and
number some fifty species, of which seven reach the
Bed-eyed Vireo northeastern States. Of these, by far
rireo'oitvactt/i:. the most common is the Eed-eyed
Plate Lix. Yireo. There are few favorable locali-
ties in eastern North America where, in the summer,
one may not hear the cheerful s»»ng of this bird. Still,
it is so well protected by the foliage, with which its
plumage agrees in color, that to those whose ear is not
attuned to the music of birds it is unknown. But listen
near some grove of elms or maples, and you will not fail
to hear its song— a somewhat broken, rambling recitative,
which no one has described so well as Wilson Flagg, who
calls this bird the Preacher, and intei-prets its notes as
•' You see it — you know it — do you hear me ? — do you be-
lieve it ? " The Red-eye evidently has an inquiring mind,
for he never tires of asking these questions. He not
onl}' sings all day, but seems unaffected by the heat of
summer, and at midday is often the only bird to be heard.
One would imagine that few birds had a more even tem-
perament than this calm-voiced singer, but when annoyed
he utters a complaining wJiang — a sound which is a good
indication that something is wrong in the bird world.
The Red-eye winters in the tropics, and reaches us in
the spring about May 1, remaining until October 15.
A near relative of the Red-eye's is the Warbling
Yireo — a somewhat smaller bird, with a brown, in place
of red eye, and without the black margin above the white
eye-line which can be so easily seen in the Red-eye. The
Warbling Yireo is the less common of the two. and is
Plate LXV. Paoe 172.
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT.
Length, 745 inches. Upper parts olive-green; breast yellow ; belly
white ; lores black, bordered by white.
VIREOS. 165
more local, showiug- a marked fondness for rows of elms
— a taste which makes it a dweller in towns and villages.
Its so::g hears no resemblance to that
Warbling Vireo, ^f ^^^ Eed-eve, being a continuous,
flowing warble, with an alto under-
tone, suggestive of the song of the Purple Finch.
The W^arbling Vireo arrives from its winter home in
the tropics about May 5, and remains until late in Sep-
tember.
Although the Yellow-throated Vireo is least like the
Red-eye in color, it resembles it the most closely in choice
Y 11 -thr t d ^^ haunts and in song. Still, the Yellow-
Vireo, throat's song is sung more deliberately
Vireo flavifroiis. and witli longer pauses between the
Plate Lix. parts, while in tone it is deeper and
richer. To my mind he says : " See me ; I'm here ; where
are you ? " repeating the question in varying forms.
Rarely he utters a beautiful, mellow trill which suggests
the song of the Ruby-crowned Kinglet, and he has also
a caching, scolding note like that of the "White-eye.
The Yellow-throat's nest is often a more elaborate struc-
ture than those of our other Vireos, being thickly cov-
ered with lichens, which add greatly to its beauty.
Like the two preceding species, the Yellow-throat
winters in the tropics, and reaches the latitude of New
York city about May 1. It does not, however, remain
as long as its relatives, leaving us about September 15.
The White-eyed Vireo is the genius of his family.
What the Chat is among Warblers the White- eye is
among Vireos — a peculiar, eccentric
White-eyed Vireo, ^^.^,^ ^f ^^^ character, who regards
v%reo novtboracensis. . , '^ . ' i -n
mankind with disapproval, and will
have none of us. Excellent reasons these why we
should court his acquaintance.
Unlike our other Vireos, the White-eve lives in the
166 WARBLERS.
lower growth ; tliicliets of cat-brier are his favorite
haunts. He is therefore nearer our level, and seems to
address us more directly than do the birds that call from
the tree tops. If you linger near his home he will inquire
your business with a vigorous " I say, who are you, eh ? "
and if you do not take this hint to move on he will
doubtless follow it with a scolding whose intent is unmis-
takable. He has a variety of exclamatory calls, and
sometimes may be heard softly singing a song composed
largely of imitations of the notes of other birds.
The White-eye can easily be known from the Red-eye
and Warbling Yireos by the narrow white bands across
the tips of its wing-coverts. In this respect it resembles
the Yellow-throat, from which it is to be distinguished
by its smaller size (length 5*25 inches), white iris, and
white breast, only the sides of the breast being tinged
with yellow. It winters from Florida southward, and
reaches us in the spring about May 1, to remain until
October.
Waeblers. (Family Mniotiltid^.)
Warblers may be described as among our most abun-
dant, most beautiful, and least-known birds. Of the
thirty-five species regularly found in the northeastern
States, only three or four are familiar to the casual ob-
server. The presence of the others is unsuspected, and
when some chance brings one of these exquisite little
creatures into our lives, the event is attended by all the
excitement of an actual discovery. We never forget our
first Warbler.
It is because we do not see Warblers unless we look
for them that they are strangers to so many persons who
go to the woods. They are, with some exceptions, small
birds of limited vocal powers. They live in the tree tops,
Plate LXVI.
Page 174.
MOCKINGBIRD.
Length, 10-50 inches. Upper parts ashy gray ; wings and tail brovmish
black and white ; under parts white.
BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER. 167
and tlieir lisping notes blend with other woodland voices
\vithout attiv.cting our attention.
May and September are the months for Warblers.
Some species arrive in April, but they are most numer-
ous between May 5 and 15, when the woods are
thronged with their flitting forms. Less than half of our
thirty-live species remain to breed ; the others go to their
summer homes in the conifei'ous forests of the jSTorth.
These northern birds return in the latter part of August
and abound in September. Many of the Warblers seen
at this season are immature birds wearing plumages so
different from those of the adult birds seen in the spring,
that their identity is not suspected, and, in effect, they
are new birds to us.
To the field ornithologist Warblers are therefore the
most difiicult as well as the most fascinating birds to
study. Long after the Sparrows, Flycatchers, and Vireos
have been mastered, there will be unsolved problems
among the Warblers. Some rare species will be left to
look for — it may be a member of the band flitting al)0ut
actively in the branches above us — and in the hope of
finding it we eagerly examine bird after bird until our
enthusiasm yields to an aching neck.
Acquaintance with more familiar birds will d' ubtless
arouse the enthusiasm necessary to a successful pursuit of
Black and White Warblers, but in the meanwhile I will
Warbler, mention only those species that can be
Mniotiita varia. most easily obscrved. Among them is
Plate LX. ^i^g -j^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^.^g Warbler, whose
habit of creeping or climbing over trunk and limb aids
in his identification. He is a summer resident, and about
April 20 we may expect to hear the thin, wiry see-see-
see-see notes which form his song. A month later we
may find his nest, placed on the ground at the base of
a stump or stone and containing four or five white
Igg WARBLERS.
eggs speckled with reddish brown, chiefly at the larger
end.
The Yellow Warbler is also a summer resident, arriv-
ing in the spring about April 30 and remaining, with
the Black-and-white Warbler, until late
Yellow Warbler, j^ September. It has the general ap-
Dendroica CEsHva. '- i> ^ • . -, ■,^
pearance of being an entirely yellow
bird, and is sometimes called " Wild Canary," but it has
a much more slender bill than the Canary, and its breast
is spotted with reddish brown. Most Warblers are wood-
inhabiting birds, but the Yellow Warbler, unlike its rela-
tives, prefers lawns, parks, and orchards to woodlands.
Its nest, of fine grasses, fibers, and a large amount of cot-
tony plant-down, is placed in shrubbery or shade trees.
Its eggs are bluish white, thickly marked with cinnamon
and olive-brown.
The Black-throated Green Warbler nests in pine for-
ests from southern New England northward, arriving
^, , ^ , from the South about May 1 and re-
Black-throated . . .1/^1 t^^ j. •
Green Warbler mammg until October. Its nest is
Bendroica vircns. usually placcd in piuc trccs ; its eggs
Plate LXi. j^j,g white, spotted and speckled with
dark brown.
The songs of many Warblers are possessed of so little
character that the best description conveys no idea of
them, but the quaint zee-zee^ zee-ee, zee of the Black-
throated Green, which Mr. Burroughs writes v — >
will be readily recognized.
The Myrtle or Yellow-rumped Warbler nests from
northern New England northward, and in winter is the
Myrtle Warbler, ^^ly Warbler to remain in the North-
Dendroica coroiiata. em States, bciug oftcu fouud as far
Plate LXI. north as New York city, when its
favorite food of bayberries can be procured. At this
season there is little or no black on the breast and the
Platb LXVIL Page 175.
BKOWN THRASHEK.
Length, 11 -40 inches. Upper parts bright reddish brown ; under parts
white and black ; eyes yellow.
REDSTART. 109
back is grayish brown, but this ^Varbler may always be
known by its four patches of yellow and its characteristic
call-note of tchip.
The Eedstart belongs to the group of fly-catching
Warblers, and, as an indication of its manner of feeding,
Eedstart ^^^'^ '^^'^ ^^ much broader and flatter than
Sftojihiga rutieiiia. is usual in this family. The Eedstart is
Plate LXli. jiQi; gQ patient and methodic a flycatcher
as the birds to whom this name rightly belongs. They
sit quietly until some insect comes within reach, and then
with unerring aim launch out at it, returning to their
perch to dev'Our it at leisure. But the Redstart darts
here and there, falls and rises and spins about, catching
an insect at every turn and at the same time displaying
his bright colors to such advantage that he seems the
most beautiful as he is the most animated bird of the
woods. As he pirouettes from limb to limb, with drooped
wings and spread tail, he sings ser-ivee sioee, sioee-ee, a
simple but merry little jingle.
The Redstart^s bright colors, like some mark of
special distinction, are not acquire.l at once. The young
male must pass through a period of probation before he
is worthy to wear the orange-red and black. In the
meantime he appears tirst in the costume of the female,
and by successive changes reaches the full dignity of
Redstart estate at the age of three years. He nests,
however, the first year, when his plumage closely re-
sembles that of his mate. The nest, of fine strips of
bark, plant-down, and other materials, is built in the
crotch of a sapling ten to twenty feet from the ground.
The eggs are grayish white or bluish white, spotted and
blotched, chiefly at the larger end, with cinnamon and
olive-brown. They are laid about May 28 — four weeks
after the bird's arrival from the Sotitli.
All the "Warblers thus far mentioned are tree-inhabit-
170 OVE^'-BIRD.
ing birds, but the species now to be spoken of pass most
of their time in the midergrowth or on the ground. The
Oven-bird Oven-bird chooses the latter locahty.
Seiurus aurocajniius. He has been well compared by Mr.
Plate LXili. Burroughs to a little Partridge, and if
you have enough perseverance to find the author of the
sharp e/ieej} with which this somewhat suspicious bird
will greet you, you will see a modestly attired little
walker daintily picking his way over the leaves and fallen
branches, with crest slightly erect, and head nodding at
each step.
Probably, however, your first acquaintance with the
Oven-bird will be made through the medium of his song.
There are few bits of woodland where in May and June
you can not hear numbers of these birds singing. It is a
loud, ringing, crescendo chant, to which Mr. Burroughs's
description of " teacher, teacher, teacher, TEACHEK,
TEACHEE " is so applicable that no one would think of
describing it in any other way. The bird seems to exert
himself to the utmost, and no one hearing this far from
musical performance would imagine that he could im-
prove upon it. But if some evening during the height
of the mating season you will ^asit the Oven-bird's
haunts, you may hear a song whose wildness is startling.
It is the flight-song of the Oven-bird, transforming the
humble chanter into an inspired musician. Soaring high
above the trees, he gives utterance to a rapid, ecstatic
warbling so unlike his ordinary song that it is difiicult to
believe one bird is the author of them both.
As an architect the Oven-bird is also distinguished.
His unique nest is built on the ground of coarse, grasses,
weed stalks, leaves, and rootlets, and is roofed over, the
entrance being at one side. It thus resembles an old-
fashioned Dutch oven, and its shape is the origin of its
builder's name. The Oven-bird arrives from the South
Plate LXVIII. P^o^ 175.
HOUSE WEEN,
Length, 5-00 inches. Upper parts brown, marked with black and
grayish ; under parts grayish white.
MAEYLAND YELLOW-THROAT. 171
about May 1, and its eggs are laid about the 20tli of tlie
month. They ai'e white, speckled or spotted mth cinna«
mon and reddish brown.
The Maryland Yellow-throat is an abundant inhabit-
ant of thickets and bushy undergrowths, readily iden-
„ , , tihed by his black mask and yellow
Yellow-throat breast, nervous activity, and character-
Geothlypis trichas. istic notcs. Some birds must be ap-
^^^ ■ proached with caution, but nothing save
an actual attack upon his home will cause the Yellow-
throat to leave its shelter. Hopping from iimb to limb,
he advances to the border of the thicket, then retreats to
its depths, all the time uttering an impatient chack, chit,
or pit, and, if forced to fly, he goes only to the next clump
of bushes.
The Yellow-throat's somewhat explosive song is so
easily set to words and so variable that tliei-e are many
versions of it. It is described as wJdtitltee, whitititee,
whitititee ; Tapity, 7'apity, rapitij, rap, or ivitdi-e-wee-o,
witch-e-wee-o, witch-e-vjee-o. Mr. Burroughs says he has
heard birds whose notes sounded like the words " Which
way, sir ? " and I have heard some who seemed to say
*•' Wait a minute."
To this the Yellow throat sometimes adds a flight
song, which is a miniature of the Oven-bird's aerial sere-
nade. It is generally added to his usual song, and is
most often heard late in the season at evening, when
the bird may be seen springing into the air above his
bushy retreat.
The Yellow-throat arrives from the South about May
1, and remains until the middle of October. Late in
May a bulky nest of grasses, strips of bark, and dead
leaves, lined with finer materials, is built on or near the
ground. The three to five eggs are white, rather thinly
speckled with reddish brown. Often an egg of the Cow-
172 YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT.
bird will be found in the nest, yellow-throats being one
of the birds most frequently chosen by the Cowbird as
foster-parents.
The Chat is the largest of the Warblers, and so unlike
them, or any other birds, in disposition that if classifica-
YeUow-breastedChat, ^ion were based on character, the Chat
Ideria virens. would surcly be placcd in a family by
Plate Lxv. itself. The Chat's peculiarities are
numerous, but ai-e most evident in his song. Many
times I have sat, note-book and pencil in hand, trying to
express in words the song of a Chat singing in a neigh-
boring thicket, but I have never succeeded in putting on
paper anything which would convey an adequate idea of
the bird's remarkable vocal performances. Of others
who have attempted the same task, I think Mr. Bur-
roughs comes nearest to interpreting the bird's strange
medley. He says : " Now he barks like a puppy, then
quacks like a Duck, then rattles like a Kingfisher, then
squalls like a fox, then caws like a Crow, then mews like
a cat. . . . C-r-r-r-r-t' — ivh/'r — thafs it — chee — (piack^
duel', yit-yit-yit — now hit it — tr-r-r-r — iDhen — caiv — caw
— cut. cut — tea-hoy — loho, idJio — meto, tnewy You may
be pardoned for doubting that a bird can produce so
strange a series of noises, but if you will go to the Chat's
haunts in thickety openings in the woods, or other bushy
places, and let him speak for himself, you will admit that
our alphabet can not do him justice. To hear the Chat is
one thing, to see him quite another. But he will repay
study, and if you will conceal yourself near his home you
may see him deliver part of his repertoire while on the
wing, with legs dangling, wings and tail flapping, and his
whole appearance suggesting that of a bird who has had
an unfortunate encounter with a charge of shot.
But if the Chat's song is surprising when heard dur-
ing the day, imagine the effect it creates at night when
PiiATE LXIX. Page 177.
LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN.
Length, 5-20 inches. Upper parts brown, black, and white, a white
line over eye ; under parts white, sides brownish.
CATBIRD. 173
he has the stage to himself, for he is one of our few birds
who sing regularly and freely during the night, moonht
nights being most often selected.
The Chat is a rather southern bird in its distribution,
being found north of Connecticut only locally and rarely.
It winters in the tropics, coming to us about May 1 and
departing early in September. Its well-made nest of
grasses, leaves, and strips of bark is generally placed in
the crotch of a saphng within three feet of the ground.
Its three to five eggs are white, rather evenly speckled
and spotted with reddish brown.
Thrashers, Wrens, etc. (Family Troglodytid^.)
The Eastern representatives of this family are appar-
ently too unlike to be classed in the same group, but when
all the two hundred members of the family are studied, it
is evident that the extremes are connected by intermedi-
ate species possessing in a degree the characters of both
Wrens and Thrashers.
The Catbird belongs to the subfamily Mimince, which
contains also the Mockingbirds and Thrashers, number-
Catbird ^S some fifty species, all being re-
Gaieoscopus strictcd to Nortli America.
The Catbird is one of the most
familiar feathered inhabitants of the denser shrubbery
about our lawns and gardens. The sexes are alike in
color, both being slaty gray, with a black cap and tail,
and brick-red under tail-coverts. They arrive from the
South about April 29, and remain until October. Their
nest is usually placed in thickets, shrubbery, or heavily
foliaged trees, and the deep greenish blue eggs are laid
the fourth week in May.
It is unfortunate that the Catbird's name should have
originated in his call-note rather than in his song. The
BROWN THRASHER. 175
moonlight nights of the nesting season, Mockingbirds
sing all night. They are then less active, and, mounting
to some favorite perch, often a chimney top, flood the
still air with entrancing melody.
Like the Catbird and Mocker, the Brown Thrasher or
Brown "Thrush" inhabits thickets and undergrowth.
Brown Thrasher ^^ ^^' lit)^'ever, a much less domestic
iiai-jMrhynciuis m/us. bird, and prefers I, rushy pasture lots and
Plate LX VII. wajside hedges to lawms or gardens.
He arrives from the South the latter part of April, and
often remains until late in October. The nest is built
about May 15, and is placed on the ground or several feet
above it. The eggs are bluish or gi'ayish white, thickly,
evenly, and minutely speckled with cinnamon or reddish
bi'own.
As a songster I should rank the Thrasher between
the Mocker and the Catbird. His song is less varied and
animated than the Mocker's, and while his technique may
not excel that of the Catbird, his song, to my mind, is
much more effective than the performance of that accom-
plished musician. Mounting to the topmost limb of a
tree, he sings uninterruptedly for several minutes. The
notes can be heard for at least a third of a mile, ringing
out clear and well defined above the medley of voices
that form the chorus of a May morning.
The intense vitality which characterizes the life of
birds finds its highest expression in the Wrens. Perpet-
House Wren ^'^^ motion alone describes the activity
Trogiodyteif ae.ion. of tliesc iicrvous, cxcitablc little crca-
Piate LX\ III. tures. Repose seems out of the ques-
tion ; as well expect to catch a weasel asleep as to find a
"Wren at rest.
In his movements, song, and nesting habits our House
Wren exhibits the characteristic traits of his family. He
is ever hopping, flitting, bobbing, or bowing, pausing
176 HOUSE WREN.
only long euongli to give voice to his feelings in fidgetty,
scolding notes, or an effervescing, musical trill, with the
force of which his small body trembles. It is a wonder-
ful outburst of song, and the diminutive singer's enthu-
siasm and endurance are even more remarkable. The
song occupies about three seconds, and I have heard a
Wren, in response to a rival, sing at the rate of ten songs
a minute for two hours at a time.
The House Wren nests in almost any kind of suitable
hole or cavity, and will frequently take possession of a
bird box, if the House Sparrows have not already set up
a claim to the same property. To prevent intrusion from
the Sparrows, the entrance to the house should be made
not larger than a quarter of a dollar. Whatever be
the site the Wrens select, their surplus energy is em-
ployed in completely filling it with twigs, half a bushelful
being sometimes brought with endless pains. The nest
proper is composed of dried grasses, and is placed in the
center of this mass. Even in egg-laying the exhaustless
vitality of Wrens is shown, as many as six or eight eggs
being deposited. In color they are uniformly and mi-
nutely speckled with pinkish brown.
The House Wren arrives from the South late in April
and remains until October. Shortly before its departure
in the fall a Wren comes from the
Winter Wren -j^^^,^^ ^^^^^ resembles the House Wren
Troglodytes humans. ^ • n i i
in appearance, but is smaller and has
the under parts pale brown, the breast and belly being
finely barred with a darker shade of the same color.
This is the Winter Wren, a bird that nests from north-
em New England northward and southward along the
crests of the Alleghanies to North Carolina. It remains
with us in small numbers throughout the winter, return-
ing to its summer home in April. Mr. Burroughs writes
of the Winter Wren's song as a " wild, sweet, rhythmical
Plate LXXI. Pages 180, 181.
RED-BEEASTED NUTHATCH.
Length, 4-60 inches. Male, crown and line through eye black ; back
gray ; under parts rusty. Female, similar, but black replaced by gray.
WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.
Length, 6-05 inches. Male, crown black; back gray; face and under
parts white. Female, similar, but crown slaty.
WKENS. 177
cadence that holds you entranced," but while with us the
bird's only note is an impatient chimp, chimp, suggest-
ing the Song Sparrow's call-note.
The Carolina Wren is a more southern bird than the
House Wren. It is of only local distribution north (»f
Carolina Wren southern JSTew Jersey, and is rai-e'y
.Thryothonis fouud uortli of tlic vicinity of New
ludovu-ianus. Yqj.]^ (.j^y, where it appears to be in-
creasing in numbers and is found throughout the year.
This Wren is half an inch longer and decidedly heavier
than the House Wren ; its upper parts are bright cinna-
mon, its under parts washed with the same color, and
a conspicuous white line passes from the bill over the
eye.
The Carolina Wren is an exceedingly musical bird,
and its loud whistled calls are among the most character-
istic bird notes in the South. They are numerous and
varied, the most common resembling the syllables lohee-
udel, lohee-iidel, ivhee-udel, and tea-l-eitle, tea-l-ettle, tea-
Tcettle.
The haunts of most marsh -inhabiting -birds are as
sharply defined as the limits of their ranges. The Long-
^.„ , billed Marsh Wren is not known in
Long-billed
Marsh Wren ^^^ East north of Massachusetts, but I
Oistothorns pahis(ri.-<. WOuld aS SOOU CXpCCt tO find OUC of
Plate LXix. these birds in Greenland as out of a
marsh. They arrive from the South early in May and
remain until October, living in marshes where cat-tails
grow, to which they may attach their bulky, globular
nests of reeds and grasses. With the superabundant
vigor of AYrens they build more nests than they can
possibly occupy, and many will be examined before the
five to six dark l)rown eo;o-s are found.
The Marsh Wren is quite as active and irrepressible
as the other members of his familv. His call is the cus-
178 BROWN CREEPER.
tomary scolding cacl: ; his song, a bubbling, trickling
tinkle that can not be called musical, but to my mind is
indescribably attractive. It is often sung in the air, and
in marshes where Wrens are abundant bird after bird
may be seen springing a few feet above the reeds, sing-
ing his song, and then dropping back again.
Creepers. (Family Certhiid^.)
Of the twelve known members of this family, the
Brown Creeper is the only one inhabiting the New
World. It is a northern bird, breed-
Brown Creeper, . i , , ^ n r • xi
Certhia familiar is mg at sca level Only from Mame north-
americnna. ward, but extending southward in the
Plate Lxx. Alleghanies to E"orth Carolina. Sev-
eral western races are found in the Rocky Mountain
region and Sierra Madres. Our eastern bird migrates
southward late in September, and from that date until
April it may be found from Massachusetts to Florida,
The Creeper, like a Woodpecker, never climbs head
downward, but, using his stiff, pointed tail-feathers (see
rig. 3 &) as a prop, winds rapidly up the trunks of trees
in his apparently never-ending search for insects' eggs
and larvse hidden in crevices in the bark. If the Wrens
are the most active birds, the Creeper is the most dili-
gent. Except when it was stopping to secure some tid-
bit, I can not remember seeing a Creeper resting. He
usually begins at the base of a tree and climbs in a seri-
ous, intent way for a certain distance, and then, without
a moment's pause, drops down to the bottom of the next
tree and continues his search.
The Creeper's <uily notes while with us are a thin,
fine squeak ; but Mr. Brewster tells us that during the
nesting season he has an exquisitely tender song of four
notes.
PiiATE LXXII. GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET. P^^ES 181, 182.
Length, 4-05 inches. Male, crown orange, yellow, and black ; back
olive-green ; under parts whitish. Female, similar, but crown without
orange. RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.
Length, 4-tO inches. Adult male, crown-patch ruby ; back olive-green ;
under parts whitish. Adult female and young, similar, but no crown-
patch.
CHICKADEE. 179
Titmice and Nuthatches. (Family Parid^.)
Comparing the Titmice witli the N^uthatches, the
former may be described as short-billed birds with long
tails who do not creep, the latter as long-billed birds
with short tails who do creep. The two groups are, in
fact, quite distinct, and by some systematists are placed
in separate families.
The Titmice nnmber some seventy-five species, four
of which are found in eastern North America. The
Chickadee commonest and most generally distrib-
Farus utncapiiius. nted is the Black-capped Chickadee,
Plate LXX. which is found from Labrador to Mary-
land and in the Alleghanies southward to North Carolina.
Farther south it is replaced by the closely allied Carolina
Chickadee.
Throughout the greater part of its range the Chickadee
is found at all seasons, but it is less common in the middle
and southern New England States in summer than in win-
ter, and is most numerous during its migration in October.
It is with winter that these merry little black and
white midgets are generally associated. Their taraeness,
quaint notes, and friendly ways make them unusually cora-
-panional)le birds ; one need not lack for society when
Chickadees are to be found. Many of their notes are
especially conversational in character, and in addition to
the familiar chickadee call, they have a high, sweet,
plaintive two- or three-noted whistle.
The Chickadee nests about the middle of May, select-
ing some suitable cavity or making one for himself in a
decayed trunk or limb and lining it with moss, plant-
down, and feathei's. The eggs, five to eight in number,
are white, spotted and speckled, chiefly at the larger end,
with cinnamon or reddish brown.
13
180 WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.
The Tufted Titmouse is a more southern bird than
the Chickadee and is rarely found north of northern New
Jersey, where, however, it remains
Tufted Titmouse, throu^liout the year. It is six inclies
Parus blcolor. .ni i i-»iii
m length, gray above, whitish below
with a black forehead, reddish brown sides, and a con-
spicuous crest. Its usual call is a whistled jpeto^ jpeto^
'peto, which it will utter for hours at a time. It has also
a de-de-de-ds call, suggesting the Chickadee's well-known
notes, but louder and more nasal.
With no especial structure other than slightly enlarged
toe nails, the Nuthatches still differ markedly from other
_y, . , . , birds in the ease with which they run
Nuthatch up or down tree trunks. The tail is
Sitta caroiiiiennis. slioi't and squarc and is not used in
PhrteLXXi. climbing. The bill is rather slender,
but proves an effective instrument in removing insects'
eggs and larvae from crevices in the bark and even in
excavating a nesting hole in some decayed limb. Several
species also use it to crack or " hatch " nuts after they
have wedged them in a convenient crevice.
Of the three species of Nuthatches found in eastern
North America the White-breasted is the most common
and generally distributed, being a permanent resident from
Florida to northern New England. Like many resident
birds, it nests early, the five to eight eggs being depos-
ited about April 20. They are white, thickly and
evenly spotted and speckled with reddish brown and
lavender.
This Nuthatch's usual call-note is a loud yank,
yanJc, while its song is a singular, tenor hah-hah-hah-
hah-hah.
The Ked -breasted Nuthatch is a more northern bird
than its larger, white-breasted cousin. At sea level it
nests from Maine northward, but in the higher parts of
Plate LXXIII. Page 183.
VEERY.
Length, 7-50 inches. Upper parts, wings, and tail uniform light cinna-
mon; breast buffy, light marked with cinnamon; beily white; sides
grayish.
GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET. 181
the Alleghanies it breeds as far southward as North Caro-
lina, It comes to us from the nortli early in Septem-
„ , ^ ^ ^ ber, and in the winter may be found in
Bed-breasted ' . nr i
Nuthatch varymg numbers from Massachusetts to
Sitta canadensis. the Glllf St-ltCS. ItS Call-UOte is
Plate LXXI. higher, thinner, and more drawled
than the vigorous yanh^ yank of the White-breasted
Nuthatch, and suggests the sound produced by a penny
trumpet.
Kinglets, Gnatcatchers, etc. (Family Sylviid^.)
Of the three subfamilies included in this family
we have representatives in eastern North America of
only two — the two Kinglets of the subfamily Regu-
lince and the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher of the subfamily
Poliojjtilincp. The Gnatcatcher is a southern bird, oc-
curring only locally or as a straggler north of Maryland.
The Kinglets are both more northern in their distri-
bution.
The Golden-crowned Kinglet nests from the north-
ern tier of States northward and southward along the
_ , , , crests of the Alleschanies to North Car-
Golden-crowned _ ^^
Kinglet, ohna. In its autumnal migration it
Regulus satrapx. rcaches the vicinity of New York city
Plate LXXii. .^,^Q^^ September 2J, and during the
winter may be found in varying numliers from Maine to
Florida.
The Golden-crown flits about the terminal twigs in its
search for insect food and reminds one somewhat of the
smaller, tree-inhabiting Warblers in habits. Its call is a
fine ti^ fi, one of the highest and least noticeable notes
uttered by birds. Its song, which is rarely heard except
in its nesting range, is described by Mr. Brewster as begin-
ning with a succession of five or six fine shrill, high-pitched,
182 RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.
somewhat faltering notes, and ending with a short, rapid,
rather explosive warble.
The Kubj-crowned Kinglet is a more northern bird
in summer and a more southern bird in winter than the
Golden-crown, rarely being found at the latter season north
of South Carolina. Throughout the Middle States it oc-
_ , - curs as an abundant si^rino- and fall mi-
Ruoy-crowned . ' *^
Kinglet, gJ'ant, passing northward from April 10
Eeguius caUnu'da. to Mrj 10 and southward between Sep-
piute LXXii. tember 20 and October 20. The Ruby-
crown resembles the Golden-crown in habits, but is more
active. Females and young males lack the ruby crown-
patch, but their white eye-ring, impatient, wrenlike little
note, and manner of nerv^ously twitching their wings are
characteristic.
Taking the small size of the bird into consideration,
the Ruby-crown's song is one of the most marvelous vo-
cal performances among birds. As Dr. Coues remarks,
the sound-producing organ is not larger than a pinhead,
and the muscles that move it are almost microscopic
shreds of flesh ; still, the bird's song is not only surpass-
ingly sweet, varied, and sustained, but is possessed of suf-
ficient volume to be heard at a distance of two hundred
yards. Fortunately, the Ruby-crown sings both on its
spring and fall migrations.
Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. (Family Turdid^.)
On the basis of certain details of stf'ucture Thrushes
are generally assigned highest rank in the class Aves.
Without pausing to discuss the value of the characters on
which this classification is made, there can be no question
that from an aesthetic standpoint the Thrushes possess in
a greater degree than any other birds those qualifications
which make the ideal bird. There are many birds with
Plate LXXIV.
WOOD THEUSH.
Page 184.
Length, 8-30 inches. Upper parts bright, rusty cinnamon, brightest on
back and crown ; under parts white everywhere, except center of belly,
with large, rounded black spots.
VEERY. 183
brighter plumage, more striking voices, and more inter-
estinii; liabits, but there are none whose bearino- is more dis-
tinguished, whose songs are more spiritual. The brilliant
Hummingbirds and Tanagers excite our admiration, but
the gentle, retiring Thrushes appeal to our higher emo-
tions ; their music gives voice to our noblest aspirations.
Five of the true Thrushes of the genus Turdus are
found in eastern North America. Three of them may
be mentioned here — the Veery, Wood Thrush, and Her-
mit Thrush — a peerless trio of songsters. The Yeery's
mysterious voice vibrates through the air in pulsating
circles of song, like the strains of an ^ohan harp. The
Wood Thrush's notes are ringing and bell-like ; he sounds
the matin and vesper chimes of day, while the Hermit's
hymn echoes through the woods like the swelling tones
of an organ in some vast cathedral.
But it is impossible to so describe these songs that
their charm will be understood. Fortunately, all three
birds are abundant, and a brief account of their haunts
and habits will enable any one to find them.
The Yeery, or Wilson's Thrush, winters in Central
America, and nests from northern Illinois and northern
Yggj, New Jersey northward to Manitoba and
Turdus ftiscewens. Newfoundland and southward along the
Phite LXXiii. Alleghanies to North Carolina. It comes
to us in the spring, about May 1, and remains until Se23-
tember 15. Near the middle of May it begins to build its
nest, placing it on or near the ground. Its eggs are
greenish blue, and resemble in color those of the Wood
Thrush, but are slightly smaller.
The Yeerj^'s favorite haunts are low, damp woods
with an abundant undergrowth. It is a more retiring
bird than the Wood Thrush, and is rarely seen far from
tracts of woodland. It is to be distinguished from our
other Thrushes by the uniform cinnamon color of its
184 WOOD THRUSH.
Tipper pai-ts, faintly spotted breast, and particularly by
its notes.
The Veery's characteristic calls are a clearly whistled
ichee-o or whee-yoii^ the first note the higher, and a some-
what softer too-whee or teiveu, in which the first note is
the lower. Its song is one of the most mysterious and
thrillino; sounds to be heard in the woods. Elsewhere I
have described it as "a weird, ringing monotone of
blended alto and soprano tones. ... It has neither
break nor pause, and seems to emanate from no one
place. If you can imagine the syllables vee-r-r-hu [or
vee-ry] repeated eight or nine times around a series of
intertwining circles, the description may enable you to
recognize the Veery's song."
The "Wood Thrush is a more southern bird than the
Veery, breeding from as far south as Florida, north-
Wood Thrush ward to southern Vermont and Minne-
Tiirdu>i inudeiiiius. sota. It wiuters in Central America
Plate Lxxiv. ^^-^^ reaches us in the spring, about April
30, and remains until October 1. Its nest is built about
the middle of May, and is generally placed in a sapling
some eight feet from the ground. The eggs are greenish
blue.
The Wood Thrush is not such a recluse as the Veery.
He is, it is true, a wood lover, and shares with the Veery
his secludeJ haunts, but he seems equally at home in
maples and elms about our houses, or even in the more
(piiefc village streets. He is therefore more often heard
than his mysterious relative, and, as a voice, is familiar to
many who do not know the singer's name.
The call -notes of the Wood Thrush are a liquid quirt
and sharp pit-pit. The latter is an alarm note, which,
when the bird fears for the safety of its young, is uttered
with much increased force and rapidity. It can be closely
imitated by striking two large pebbles together.
Plate LXXV.
HEEMIT THRUSH.
Page 185.
Length, 7-15 inches. Upper parts and wings dark cinnamon-brown ;
tail bright reddish brown ; under parts white ; breast spotted with
black ; sides washed with brownish ; belly white.
HERMIT THRUSH. 185
The song of the "Wood Thrush is wholly unlike
that of the Veerj, It opens with the flutelike notes,
and is snng disconnectedly, being broken
by pauses and by low notes, audible only
N-
-zs^^:=--
Come to me, when one is near the singer.
The Hermit Thrush is a more northern bird than
either the Veery or the "Wood Thrush. It rarely nests at
Hermit Tlirush ^^^ level south of Yermont or northern
■ Turdus aonuhtschkce Michigan, but in the higher portions of
paiiasiL Massachusetts and on the crests of the
Catskills and Alleghanies in Pennsyl-
vania, it is also found breeding. It winters from south-
ern Illinois and New Jersey southward to the Gulf, it
being the only member of its genus to inhabit the east-
ern United States at that season. Its s^ning migrations
occur between April 5 and May 10, and in the fall we
see it from October 15 to November 25, while occasion-
ally it may winter.
During its migrations the Hermit Thrush usually fre-
quents woodlands, where it may often be seen on or near
the ground. Like the Yeery, it is a ground-nester, and
its eggs, though slightly lighter in color, resemble tliose
of the Yeery and Wood Thrush in being plain, bluish
green. When alighting, the Hermit has a characteristic
habit of gently raising and lowering its tail, and at the
same time uttering a low ehuck. Sometimes it sings
during the winter, in Florida, and also while migrating ;
but if you would hear this inspired songster at his best,
you must visit him in his summer home. The Hermit's
song resembles that of the Wood Thrush in form, but
it is more tender and serene. O spheral, spheral ! O
holy, holy ! Mr. Burroughs writes the its opening notes,
and there is something about the words which seems to
express the spirit of heavenly peace with which the bird's
sons: is imbued.
18(3 ROBIN.
It seems a long step from these gentle, refined
Thrushes to their comparatively prosaic cousin, the famil-
iar Robin. But the Hobin has his
,, , ° ^°' . place, and in March his cheery sons; is
Merula rn-igrutoria. ^ ' _ ./ o
quite as effective as the Ilernait's
hymn in June.
Durino; the summer Robins are distributed through-
out North America from the Gulf States and southern
end of the Mexican tableland, northward to Labrador and
Alaska. In the winter they may be found in numbers
from Virginia southward, small flocks and single birds
being occasionally met with as far north as Massachu-
setts. Robins are among our earliest migrants, appear-
ing in the vicinity of New York city between February
20 and March 1. Nesting is begun about April 15, the
mud -lined nest and greenish blue eggs being too well
known to require description. Two, or even three broods
may be raised. In June, the young of the first brood
with some adult males resort each night to a chosen
roost, often frequented by many thousands of birds.
The fall migration begins in September, but the birds
are with us in roving l)ands until December.
About the time that we first hear the Robin's ringing
welcome to spring we may listen for the Bluebird's more
gentle greeting. Doubtless the bird
^l'''^'''^;. has been with \is all winter, for Blue-
hialia sialis.
birds winter m small numbers as lar
north as southern Connecticut, often living near groves
of cedars, which offer them both food and shelter. In
the Southern States they are far more abundant at this
season, gathering in flocks containing hundreds of indi-
viduals.
The Bluebird is the first of our smaller birds to begin
housekeeping, and early in April it may be seen pro-
specting about the site of last year's nest in a bird box or
BLUEBIED. 187
hollow tree, and tLe bluish white eggs will probably be
laid before the middle of the month.
No bird's song is more associated with the return of
spring than the Bhiel)ird's ; nor is there a bird's note
more exjDressive of the passing season than the Bluebird's
autumn call of far-away^ far-away.
INDEX.
Acanthis linaria, 146.
Accipiter cooperi, 107.
velox, 107.
Actitis macularia, 96.
iEgialitis .semipalmata, 99.
vocifera, 109.
Agelaius phoeniceus, 132.
Aggressive coloration, 44.
Aigrette plumes, 38.
AlauJidffl, 126.
Albatross, 18, 19.
Alcedinidse, 113.
Ampelidic, 161.
Ampelis cedrorum, 161.
Anatidae, 89.
Androdon, 32.
Anlilnga.s, 32.
Anseres, 89.
Antrostomus vociferus, 119.
Archajoptery.x, 3, 4, 18.
Ardea herodias, 91.
virescens, 92.
Ardeidae, 90.
Asio accipitrinus, 109.
wilsonianus, 110.
Auk, Great, 20.
Razor-billed, 20.
Auks, 20, 21, 28, 30.
Avoeet, 32, 33.
Avocettula, 31.
Bill, the, as a hand, 30.
as a musical instrument, 30.
as a weapon, 31.
sexual adornment of, 30.
uses of, 30.
Birds, altricial, 69.
ancestors of, 2.
beauty of, 9.
bill of, 30.
biography of, 73.
characters of, 2.
colors of, 35.
distri bution of, 4.
economic value of, 5.
eggs of, 68.
evolution of, 14.
feet of, 27.
lield key to, 75.
flightless, 19.
grace of, 10.
how to identify, 71.
matinQ- of, 65.
mental development of, 10.
migration of, 48.
musical powers of, 10.
nests of, 65.
number of species of, 1.
place ill Nature of, 1.
prseeocial, 69.
relation to man of, 5.
scieiititic value of, 5.
sonsrs of, 11, 62.
tail of. 25.
topography of, 74.
voice of, 62.
wings of, 17.
young of, 70.
B^tern. American, 93.
Blackbird, Crow, 133.
Redwinged, 132.
Blackbirds, 55, 130.
189
190
INDEX.
Bluebird, 49, 186.
Bobolink, IG, 36, 37, 38, 54, 55, 60, 63,
134.
Bob- white, 3(5, 100.
Bonasa uiuhellu.s, 101.
Botuuru.s leiuiginosus, 93.
Bubonidse, 108.
Bull- bat, 118.
Buntinir, Bay-winged, 140.
Black-tli routed, 155.
Indigo, (J3, 152.
Snow, 147.
Butcher-bird, 162.
Buteo borealis, 106.
lineutus, 104.
Butter- bird, 135.
Buzzard, Turkey, 104.
Buzzard:<, 8.
Call-notes, signilicance of, 63.
Canaries, 39.
Capriiiiuigidse, 117.
Cardinal, 153.
Cardinalis cardinalis, 153.
Carpodaeus purpureus, 149.
Cas.sique, 23.
Ca.<sowary, 19.
Catbird. 69, 173.
Catharte!» aura, 103.
Cathartidft, 103.
Certhia familiaria americana, 178.
Certhiidoc, 178.
Ceryle alcyon, 114.
^hretura pelaL'ica, 119.
^hambcriro. 135.
Charadriidse, 98.
Chat, Yellow-breasted, 172.
Chebec. 125.
Chelidon erythrog.aster, 159
Chewink, 151.
Chickadee, 7. 8, 70, 179.
Carolina. 179.
Chippy, 142.
Red-capped, 146.
Winter, 146.
Chondcstps grammacus, 154.
ChordeilcK virginianus, 118.
Circus hudsonius, 106.
Cistothorus palustris, 177.
Clamatores, 122.
Clape, 116.
Clivicola riparia, 159.
Coccyges, 112.
Coccyzus americanus, 112,
erythrophthalinus, 113.
Colaptes auratus, 116.
Colinu.s virginianus, 100.
Color and age, 36.
and climate, 39.
and food, 39.
and haunt and habit, 41.
and se.\, 45.
Colors of birds, 35.
ColuinbiS, 102.
Coluinbidse, 102.
Contopus virens, 12$.
Coot, 27, 28, 94.
Cormorants, 69.
CorvidiB, 128.
Corvus americanus, 128.
Cowbird, 137.
Creeper, Brown, 16, 25, 178.
Creepers, 6, 15, 16, 178.
Crossbill, American, 147.
Crow, .\merican, 128.
Crow-duck, 94.
Cuckoo, Black-billed, 113.
Yellow-billed, 7, 112.
Cuculidse, 112.
Cyanocitta cristata, 130.
Deceptive coloration, 44.
Dendrocolaptidse, 32.
Dendroica sestiva, 168.
coronata, 168.
virens, 168.
Dickcissel, 155.
Directive colors, 44.
Diving Birds, 84.
Docimastes, 31.
Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 134.
Dove, Carolina. 102.
Mourning. 102.
Dryobates pubescens medianus, 115.
villosus, 115.
Duck, Black, 89.
INDEX.
191
Duck, Broadbill, "JO.
Bufflehead, iiO.
Canvasbaek, 90.
Eider, 90.
Old Squaw, 90.
Redhead, 90.
Kuddy, 90.
Scaup, 90.
Wood, 89.
Ducks, W, 21, 22, 23, 28, 30, 36, 07.
Eagle, Bald, 108.
Eggs of birds, G8.
Egret, White, 91.
Einpidonax minimus, 125.
Emu. 19, H9, 70.
Ereunetes pusillus, 98.
Euto.\ei-es, 31.
Falco sparvcrius, 106.
Falconidse, 104.
Feet, the, as hands, 29.
as weapons, 29.
etl'ects of use and disuse of, 27.
seasonal change in structure of, 29.
uses of, 27.
Field-glass, 72.
Finch, Grass, 140.
Lark, 154.
Purple, 39, 149.
Finches, 42, 138.
Firebird, 131.
Fish Hawk, 66.
Flamingo, 28, 39.
Flicker, 68, 116.
Flycatcher, Arizona Crested, 124.
Crested, 68, 123.
Great Crested, 123.
Least, 125.
Flycatchers, 6,27,44, 121.
Frigate Birds, 5, 19.
FringillidsB, 139.
Fulica americana, 94.
Galeoscoptes caroliuensis, 173.
Galling, 100.
Gallin.agn delicata, 97.
Gallinules, 17, 20, 22.
Gannets, 32.
Geothlvfiis trichas, 171.
Glacial period, 59.
Gnatcalcher, Blue-gray, 181.
Goldlinch, 148.
Goose, Canada, 94.
Grackle, Bronzed, 133.
I'urple, 133.
Grebe, Pied-billed, 84.
Grebes, 18, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 84
Grosbeak, Cardinal, 36.
Pine, 148.
Ro.se-breasted, 36, 150.
Grouse, Kuffed, 29, 101.
Grouse, 18, 19, 23, 27^ 29, 36, 41, 62.
Gull, Herring, 86.
Gulls, 9, 07.
IlaliaGetus leucoceplialus, 108.
Hangnest, 131.
Ilarporhynclius rufus, 175.
Hawk, Chicken, 104, 105.
Cooper's, 8, 104, 107.
Fish, 14,29, 107.
Hen, 104.
Marsh, 64,106.
Ked-shouldered, 104.
Ked-tailed, 106.
Sharp-shinned, 8, 104, 107.
Sparrow, 100.
Hawks, 7, 8, 29, 86, 44. 55, 65.
Hell-diver, 84.
Herodioncs, 90.
Heron, Black-crowned Night, 92.
Great Blue, 91.
Little Green, 92.
Snowy, 91.
Herons, 28.
High-hole, 68, 70, 116.
Hirundinidae, 156.
Hoatzin, 17.
Hula-hird, 33.
Humming-bird, Avocet, 81
Ruby-throated, 120.
Sickle-billed, 31.
Siphon-hilled, 31.
Small-billed, 81.
Tooth-billed, 32.
192
INDEX.
Hummingbirds, 5, 6, 14, 18, 23, 25, SI,
42, 67, 69, 70, 120.
Ibis, Scarlet, 39.
Icteria virens, 172.
IcteridiE, 130.
Icterus galbula, 131.
spurius, 132.
Jacana, 24, 28.
Jay, Blue, 129.
Junco, 145.
Junco hyemalis, 145.
Juncos, 41, 44.
Key to common birds, 75.
Killdeer, 99.
Kingbird, 122.
Kingfisher, Belted, 114.
Kinglet, Golden-crowned. 181.
Ruby-crowned, 182.
Laniidije, 162.
Lanius borealis, 162.
Lark, Horned, 41, 55, 126.
Prairie Horned, 127.
Laridag, 86.
Larus argentatus smithsonianus, 86.
Lighthouses, 56, 57.
Limicolse, 32, 95.
Longipennes, 86.
Loon, 85.
Loxia curvirostra minor, 147.
Macrochires, 117.
Mallard, 89.
Man-o'-war Bird, 19.
Marsh Hen, 94.
Martin, Purple, 157, 161.
Mating of birds, 65.
Meadowlark, 27, 44, 136.
Megascops asio, liO.
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 116.
Melospiza fasciata, 138.
georgiana, 139.
Mergansers, 32, 89.
Merula migratoria, 186.
Mieropodidse, 119.
I Microrhynchus, 31.
Migration of birds, 48.
cause of, 59.
ettects of changes of climate on, 59
extent of, 49.
highways, 55, 60.
manner of, 54.
nocturnal, 55, 56, 57.
origin of, 58.
times of, 49.
Mimus polyglottos, 174.
Mniotilta varia, 167.
Mniotiltidfe, 166.
Mockingbird, 174.
Molothius ater, 137.
Molt, the, 37.
Momotus subrufescens, 25.
Motmot, 25.
Mud-hen, 94.
Myiarchus crinitus, 123.
Natural selection, 14, 15, 65.
Nesting season, 64.
Nest of birds, 65.
Nighthawk, 6, 23, 118.
Notornis, 22.
Nuthatch, Eed-breasted, 180.
White-breasted, 181.
Nuthatches, 6, 8.
Nycticorax nycticorax naevius, 92.
Opera-glass, 72.
Opisthocomus cristatus, 17.
Oriole, Baltimore, 131.
Orchard, 37, 131, 132.
Orioles, 42, 44, 55, 130.
Ortolan, 1S5.
Oscines, 122.
Osprey, American, 107.
Ostinops, 23.
Ostrich. 5, 18, 19, 27, 29, 69, 70.
Otocoris alpestris, 126.
Oven-bird, 170.
Owl, Barn, 8.
Barred, 111.
Great Horned, 110.
Long-eared, 110.
Screech, 41, 110.
INDEX.
193
Owl, Short-eared, 109.
Snowy, 44.
Owls, 7, 8, SO, 65, 108.
0.v-eye, i»8.
Paludicolffi, 93.
Pandion haliaetus carol inensis, 107.
Paridffi, 179.
Parrots, 5, 20, 29, 31, 39, 40.
Partridge, 19, 67, 100, 101.
Parus atricapillus, 179.
bicolor, ISO.
Passer doinesticus, 141.
Passerella iliaca, 144.
Pas.seres, 121.
Passerina cyanea, 152.
Peabody-bird, 143.
Peacock, 27.
Penguins, 5, 18, 21.
Peeps, 98.
Permanent residents, defined, 53.
Petrel, Leach's, 88.
Wilson's, 88.
Petrochelidon luuifrons, 159.
Pewee, Wood, 63, 126.
Phalarope, 27, 28, 70.
Pheasant, 101.
Philohela minor, 95.
Phcebe, 124.
Pici, 114.
Picidae, 114.
Pigeon, Carrier, 61.
Wild, 102.
Pigeons, 20.
Pinicola enucleator, 148.
Pintail, 89
Pipilo crythrophthalmus, 151.
Piquebois jaune, 116.
Piranga erythromelas, 156.
Plectrophenax nivalis, 147.
Plover, Black- breasted, 99.
Golden, 99.
Killdeer, 99.
Piping, 99.
Wilson's, 99.
Ring-necked, 99.
Seniipalmated, 99.
Plovers, 41, 49, 98.
Podilymbus podiceps, 84.
PodicipidaB, »4.
Poocaitus gramineus, 141.
Porzana Carolina, 94.
Proeellariidse, 88.
Progne subis, 161.
Protective coloration, 42.
colors, 41.
Ptarmigans, 44.
PygopoUes, 84.
Quail, 100.
Quails, 18, 19, 27, 41, 67.
Quiscalus quiscula, 133.
Rail, Clapper, 94.
King, 94.
Little Black, 94.
Yellow, 94.
Virginia, 94.
Rails, 18, 20, 22, 27, 93.
Rallidaj, 93.
Rallus crepitans, 94.
Raptores, 114.
Recognition colors, 44
Redpoll, 146.
Redstart, 169.
Reed bird, 134.
Regulus calendula, 182.
satrapa, 181.
Rliea, 19.
Ric-ebird, 135.
Robin, 7, 12, 36, 49, 55, 63, 186.
Golden, 131.
Salmon, 58.
Sandpiper, Semipalmated, 98.
Spoonbill. 33.
Spotted, 69, 96.
Sauropsida, 1.
Sayornis phoebe, 124.
Scolopacidae, 95.
Scoters, 90.
Seals, 58.
Seiurus aurocapillus, 170.
Setophaga ruticilla, 169.
Se.vual characters, secondary, 45.
selection, 46.
194
INDEX.
Shelklrakes, 89.
Shrike, Lojrirerhead, 162.
Northern, 162.
Sialia sialis, 186.
Signaling colors, 44.
Situ canadensis, 181.
earolinensis, 180.
Suipe, Wilson's, 97.
Snipes, 28, 36, 41, 43, 49, 67.
Snowbird, Slate-colored, 145,
White, 147.
Snowfiake, 38, 147.
Songs of birds, 62.
Sora, y4.
Sparrow, Chipping, 142.
English, 141.
Field, 140.
Fox, 144.
House, 141.
Song, 40, 138
Swamp, 139.
Tree, 146.
Vesper, 141.
White-crowned, 144.
White-lhroated, 143
Sparrows, 6, 18, 41, 43, 49, 67, 133.
Spinus tristis, 148.
Spiza aniericuna, 155.
Spizclla pusilla, 140.
nionticola, 146.
socialis, 142.
Spoonbill, Roseate, 33.
Squawk, 92.
Stake Driver, 93.
Sterna hirundo, 87.
Sturnella magna, 136.
Suuuiier residents, defined, 53.
Sylviidifi, 181.
Syrnium ncbulosuin, 111.
Swallow, Bank, 157, 159.
Barn. 157, 158, 159.
Cliff. 157, 158, 159.
Eave. 159.
Kough-winged, 160.
Tree, 157, 158, 160.
Swallows, 6, 27, 55, 156.
Swan, Trumpeter, 90.
Whistling, 90.
Swift, Chimney, 119.
Swifts, 6, 15, 27, 55, 117.
Tachycineta bicolor, 160.
Tail, the, expression of emotion witli
26.
relation between form of, and flight,
25.
sexual characters in, 25.
uses of, 25.
Tanager, Scarlet, 36, 37, 156.
Tanagers, 42, 44, 155.
Tanagridse, 165.
Teal, Blue-winged, 89.
Green- winged, 89.
Telescope, 56, 57.
Tern, Connnon, 87.
TelraonidiB, lUO.
Thraslier, Brown, 175.
Tliru.-^h, Brown, 175.
Hermit, 185.
Wilson's, 183.
Wood, 12, 184.
Thrushes, 6, 55, 67, 182.
Tliryothorus ludovicianus, 177.
Titmouse, Tufted, 180.
Towhee, 44, 151.
Transient visitants, defined, 54.
Trochilidffi, 119.
Trochilus colubris, 120.
Troglodytes aedon, 175.
hienudis, 176.
Troglodytidse, 173.
Tubinarcs, 88.
Turdidae, 182.
Turd us aonolasclikffi pallasii, 185.
fuscescens, 183.
mustelinas, 184.
Turkey, 27.
Tyrannida?, 121.
Tyrannus tyrannus, 122.
Drinator imber, 85.
U rinatoridse, 85.
Veery, 63, 183.
Vireo flavifrons, 165.
gilvus, 165,
INDEX.
191
Vireo noveboracensis, 165.
olivaeeus, 104.
Vireo, Ked-eyed, 1G4.
Warbling, 165.
Wliite-eyed, 165.
Yellow-tliroated, 165.
Vireos, 6, 55, 163.
Vireonidifi, 163.
Vulture, Black, 103.
Turkey, 103.
Vulture.^, 8.
Warbler, Black and White, 167.
Black -throated Green, 166.
Myrtle, 168.
Yellow, 168.
Warblers, 6, 42, 55, 166.
Waxwing, Cedar, 161.
Whip-poor-will, 6, 119.
W idgeon, 89.
Wing, the, as a musical instrument,
23.
as a weapon, 24.
effects of use and disuse of, 18, 20
expression of emotion with, 24.
molt of feathers of, 21.
sexual characters in, 23.
Wing, uses of, 17.
Winter residents, defined, 53.
Woodcock, 23, 32, 43, 95.
Woodliewers, 15, 25, 32.
Woodpecker, Downy, 16, 115.
IJairy, 115.
Pilcated, 14.
Ked-headed, 116.
Woodpeckers, 5, 6, 8, 14, 15, 16, 25, 30
64, 67, 69, 114.
Wren, Carolina, 177.
House, 175.
Long-billed Marsh, 177.
Winter, 176.
Wrens, 55, 173.
Wrybill, 33.
Yellowbird, 148.
Yellow-hammer, 116.
Yellow-tliroat, Maryland, 171.
Young birds, 70.
Yueker, 116.
Zamclodia ludoviciana, 150.
Zenaidura macroura, 102.
Zonotrieliia albicollis, 143.
Zonotrichia leucophrys, 144,
14
a
Plate XCI. TYPES OF BIKDS' EGGS.
1.— Oven-Bird (ovate ; spotted and wreathed). 2. — House "Wren (ovate ;
minutely speckled). 3. — Wood Pewee (ovate ; blotched and weathed).
4. — Hummingbird (elliptical ; white, unmarked). 5. — Crested Fly-
catcher (elliptical-ovate ; streaked). 6. — Span-ow Hawk (spherical ;
washed, spotted and blotched). 7. — Cowbird (ovate; evenly speckled
and spotted). 8. — Cedar Waxwing (elongate-ovate ; spotted). 9. —
Nighthawk (elliptical ; mottled and marbled). 10. — Bobolink (ovate ;
spotted and blotched). 11. — Semipalmated Sandpiper (pyriform ,
spotted). 12. — Purple Grackle (ovate ; scrawled).
APPENDIX.
FOR THE USE OF TEACHEKS.
PREFACE TO TEACHERS' APPENDIX.
While the time available for zoological studies in
our schools is too limited to permit of more than the
treatment in outline of most of the classes of ani-
mals, the fact is no\v recognized that birds possess
unusual claims to our attention. They are practi-
cally the only ones of the higher animals with Avhich
we may come in contact daily. Our large mammals
have either been exterminated or driven from the
vicinity of our homes, while most of the smaller
species are nocturnal, and, therefore, rarely seen.
Reptiles and batrachians are difficult to observe and
are not popular; while fishes, from the nature of
their haunts, can be studied only under certain con-
ditions. Birds, however, are everywhere: in field
and wood and sky, in our orchards and gardens;
and some of them are with us at all seasons.
But birds' merits do not consist merely in their
abundance. In beauty of plumage, grace of mo-
tion, and vocal ability they are without rivals; in
their migration, mating, and nesting habits they
not only display unusual intelligence, but exhibit
human traits of character that create within us a
feeling of kinship with them, and thus increase
our interest in and love for them. Furthermore,
as with increasing knowledge we begin to realize
their economic value, we are more than ever im-
IV PKEFACE.
pressed with the importance of becoming acquainted
with them.
Still, it will be obviously impossible for the stu-
dent to cover the whole field of ornithology, and
the question arises, to what phase of the subject
he should give special attention.
There are teachers who believe that classification
is the principal object of natural historj'- study, and
the aim and end of their instruction is to teach the
pupil the names of Orders and Families, and the
characters on which they are based. So far as birds
are concerned, the plan is excellent as a preliminary
step, but to my mind it is of infinitely greater im-
portance to be able to recognize a Wood Thrush or a
Veery than to define the Lamellirostral Grallatores.
In this booL structure and classification have,
therefore, been subordinated to matter which will
be of practical assistance to the student in identify-
ing the birds about his home, and in teaching him
to appreciate their economic, aesthetic, and scientific
value.
If he lives in the country, this information may be
of service to him daily ; and this, it seems to me, is
a far more profitable kind of ornithology than that
which treats only of "Orders," and "Families,"
and " leading types " which he will probably never
see outside of a museum or a zoological garden.
Acting on this belief, I have written of the living,
rather than of the dead bird, and no attempt, there-
fore, has been made to describe the anatomy of
birds, but, in preference, the questions of economics,
aesthetics, form and habit, color, migration, song,
nesting, etc., have been dwelt on with the ob-
PREFACE. V
ject of both cultivating and directing the student's
powers of observation. In order, however, to give
him some idea of the bird's pkice in Nature, tlie sub-
jects of relationships and classification have been
touched on briefly. Then follow a series of objec-
tive, seasonal lessons which are the main feature of
the book. The advantages of studying birds under
seasonal groupings are two-fold. First, by elimi-
nating species which are absent, it greatly simplifies
the question of identification. Second, it is more
real. If the student can be told that a certain spe-
cies will doubtless arrive from the south the same
day on which he is reading about it, his interest in
the subject will be at once increased ; it becomes a
matter of contemporary history. Furthermore, by
studying the birds vv^ith the seasons, we learn in the
beginning to properly associate them with certain
accompanying natural phenomena, and their com-
ings and goings become significant events in our
calendar.
As we become familiar with birds, and learn to
recognize them, the question of identity will no
longer remain a bar to our better acquaintance, and
our interest in them will deepen. We shall begin
to inquire into the questions of form and habit,
color, migration, song, nesting, etc. ; and as a guide
to observations of this character, there are given a
series of lessons treating of the philosophic or sub-
jective side of bird-study, the wide scope of which
wiU be readily appreciated.
F. M. C.
American Museum of Natural History.
r
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I.
THE BIRD : ITS PLACE IN NATURE AND RELATION TO MAN.
The BircVs Place in Nature (see Chapter I, pages 1-5). —
How many species of birds are known ? In what class are
they placed ? * Name the classes of higher animals ; that is,
mammals, fishes, and reptiles. In what respect does the
class birds differ from all the other higher classes of ani-
mals ? t What place does the class birds occui^j^ in the scale
of life ? To what class are they most nearly related ?
Ai-e birds the only hig'her animals that fly ? Are they the
only ones that lay eggs ? The only ones that incubate ?
What is the temperature of birds ? Of mammals ? Of
reptiles ? Have any living- birds teeth ? What is the chief
peculiarity of birds ? From what kind of ancestors are
birds believed to have descended ? On what evidence is
this belief based ?
Describe the Archaiopteryx. Where was it found ? In
what geologic age did it live ? Do birds vary much in
.structure ? In habit ?
Mention some varying habits of birds.
Economic Relations of Birds to Man (see Chapter I,
pages 5-9) . — In what ways are birds useful to man ? What
loss are insects estimated to inflict on our agricultural in-
terests annually ? What birds catch insects on the wing ?
In the foliage ? On the tree trunks ? What kinds feed on
terrestrial insects ? Describe Mr. Forbush\s observations
* The teacher should define the meaning of " Class " : as, for ex-
ample, the class Mammalia, the class Reptilia, etc.
t For example, such extreme representatives of the class Aves
as the Hummingbird and Ostrich, resemble each other in more
respects than do, for instance, the Bat and the Elephant in the
class Mammalia.
1
2 QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I.
on the food of the Chickadee. What was found in the
stomach of a Yellow-billed Cuckoo ? Of a Robin ? Are
most Hawks and Owls beneficial birds ? What forms the
largest part of the food of the Red-shouldered Hawk ?
What was found in the castings* of the Barn Owl ? What
State offered a reward for Hawks and Owls ? What loss is
estimated to have resulted ? Why are seed-eating birds of
economic value ? What birds are useful as scavengers ?
What was the result of killing birds on the Yucatan
Coast ?
Esthetic Relations of Birds to Man (see Chapter I,
pages 10-13). — After learning to know birds, what aesthetic
characters shall we find that they possess ? Mention several
birds of beautiful plumage. Several of unusually graceful
flight. Several musical birds. What human traits of
character are exhibited by birds ? What pleasure is to be
derived from acquaintance with birds ? Is their study re-
stricted to any special season ? In what manner will birds
appeal to us most strongly ?
Does familiarity with their notes increase the pleasure "we
receive from birds ? Is this the result of association ? In
what manner ?
* Undigested pellets of liair, feathers, and bones, which are
ejected at the mouth by Owls and some other birds.
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
Identification (see Chapter YII). — As a prelirai-
nary step to exercises in identification the student
should learn to name the parts of a bird's plumage
as they are given in Figure 25. The teacher should
then select a plate of a land-bird, and placing it at
a distance of from twenty to thirty feet from the
pupil, have him write a one-minute description of it.
This description should include the bird's approxi-
mate length," color of crown, back, tail, wings,
throat, breast, and abdomen. It is well to have
a blank prepared and ready to fill in with the
descriptions of the parts named. To this may
be added any particular characters of form {e. g.,
crests, long tail, etc.) or color {e. g., face or rump
marks, etc.).
With this description in hand the student should
then turn to the key on page TG. This is primarily
designed to identify birds in Nature, and its major
divisions are based on the most striking habits of the
birds. This, however, would not be appreciable in
the bird plate, and the teacher should, therefore,
designate in which of the three principal groups the
bird belongs. The pupil should then proceed with
* A Robin is ten inches, an English or House Sparrow six and
one-quarter inches, in length. Mental comparison with either of
these familiar birds will enable one to readily estimate the length
of anv of our Passeres.
4 OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
the identification of the bird, as explainied on
page 75.
Exercises of this nature should be repeated until
the student can describe birds quickly and accurately
and has thoroughly mastered the use of the key.
If possible, this class-room work should be fre-
quently supplemented by observations in the field.
When the country is not available, large parks often
prove by no means poor substitutes, and during the
migrations they are frequently thronged with birds.
Even when field lessons are out of the question, it
is strongly advised that the studies of certain birds
be made during the season when they are present.
The best plan is to begin in December with the birds
which are with us throughout the year, or the Per-
manent Residents, adding the Winter Visitants in
January and February. As the migrants from the
south appear, they may form the subjects of the
month's lessons, and the course ends naturally in
June, when all the summer birds have arrived.
This method associates the birds with their respec-
tive seasons, and for the field student is particularly
advantageous. He takes up the subject at a time
when the comparatively small number of birds pres-
ent greatly simplifies the question of identification,
and before the first migrants arrive in March, should
have become familiar with the commoner Permanent
Residents and Winter Visitants.
Wlien field work is practicable, each student should
keep a record of the birds observed. Notes of this
kind, made during the migration, are particularly
interesting. They may be entered on a large page
ruled in squares, similar in style to those of a roll-call
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS. O
book. The bird's name is entered at the left side of
the page, the date at the top, and the record for the
day is placed in the square opposite the bird's name
and below the date. It may consist simply of a
check or mark indicating that the species was seen,
but preferably should give the approximate num-
ber of individuals observed ; whether the species was
heard singing; whether observed in flocks; and any
other information which can be easily and intelli-
gibly abbreviated.
A journal should be kept in which to write a
more detailed account of the day's experiences.
These may also form the subject of compositions,
and the class-room work should now include com-
parison and discussion of observations made in the
field. Compositions may also be written on cer-
tain species, when the outline of a bird's biogra-
phy, given on page 73, will furnish suggestions
as to the heads under which the subject may be
treated.
Later, the philosophic or subjective side of bird-
study may be considered, and compositions written
on structure and habit, color, migration, nesting,
etc.
As a definite guide to seasonal bird-studies in the
middle Eastern States, the following outline of the
bird-life of a year is given. It is based on observa-
tions made in the vicinity of New York city, and
includes all the land-birds and the commoner water-
birds inhabiting this region. It may be prefaced by
a definition of the four groups in which our birds
are placed, according to the manner of their occur-
rence (see page 53), as follows:
6 OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
PERMANENT RESIDENTS.
Permanent Resident species are those wliich are
represented in the same locahty throughout the
year. This does not imply that the same individuals
live in one locality continuously ; few of our birds
being Permanent Residents in the strict sense of the
vv^ord. Doubtless, Puffed Grouse, Bob-whites, and
possibly a few other species, pass their lives in the
vicinity of their birth ; but most species ranked as
Permanent Residents are, in fact, more or less mi-
gratory. Thus, in the vicinity of New York city.
Chickadees and Bluebirds are found every month
of the year; but in October, many migrants of both
species may be seen, and it is probable that we then
receive our Winter Residents of these species, while
the birds that were with us during the smnmer go
farther south to pass the winter.
List of Permanent Residents.
Bob-white.
Ruifed Grouse.
Red-shouldered Hawk.
Red-tailed Hawk.
Broad-winged Hawk.*
Marsh Hawk.
Sparrow Hawk.
Duck Hawk.*
Sharp-shinned Hawk.
Cooper's Hawk.*
Bald Easle.*
Screech Owl.
Long-eared Owl.*
Short-eared Owl.
Barred Owl.
Great Horned Owl.*
Downy Woodpecker.
Hairy Woodpecker.
Red-headed Woodpecker.
(Irregular.)
Flicker.
Prairie Horned Lark.*
American Crow.
Fish Crow.
Blue Jay.
Starling. (Introduced.)
* Not common.
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
Song Sparrow.
Douse or. English Spar-
row. (Introduced.)
American Goldfinch.
European Goldfinch. *(In-
troduced.)
Purple Finch.
Cardinal.* (From New
York city and south-
ward.)
Cedar Waswing.
Carolina Wren.* (From
New York city and
southward.)
Chickadee.
Tufted Titmouse.* (From
New York city and
southward.)
White-breasted Nuthatch.
Bluebird.
WINTER VISITANTS.
The term Winter Visitant, like that of Summer
Eesident, is not used in an exact sense, but is ap-
plied to birds that arrive from the north in the fall,
pass the winter with us, and return to their more
northern homes the following spring. Most of them
arrive late in September and depart in April.
In addition to these regular Winter Visitants,
there sometimes occur irregular Winter Visitants,
whose coming cannot be foretold. Absent some
winters, they may be abundant others ; their pres-
ence or absence being apparently governed by the
supply of food to the northward. When this fails,
they sweep southward in enormous numbers, becom-
ing common in localities where they are usually rare
or unknown. Pine Grosbeaks, Crossbills, and Red-
polls are irregular Winter Visitants.
List of Winter Visitants.
Herring Gull.
Saw-whet Owl.*
Horned Lark.
Junco.
Tree Sparrow.
Pine Siskin. f
*Not common.
t Irregular.
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
Redpoll, f
Snowflake.f
Lapland Longspur.*
American Crossbill. f
White-winged Crossbill.*
Pine Grosbeak. f
Northern Shrike.*
Winter Wren.
Brown Creejjer.
Red-breasted Nuthatch.f
Golden-crowned Kiniilet.
TRANSIENT VISITANTS.
This group includes species which pass us each
spring in going to their more northern nesting
grounds, and which visit us again in the fall in
returning to their more southern winter homes.
The earlier Transient Visitants — for example, Wil-
son's Snipe and the Fox Sparrow — may remain
with us a month or six weeks should the season be
backward, but the later arrivals — for instance, the
Warblers of May, who arrive when the weather is
comparatively settled — pass us in a week or ten days.
Most of our Transient Visitants are Ducks, Geese,
Snipe, and Plover, who travel far northward beyond
the haunt of man to breed in security ; and Warblers
and Thrushes, who nest in the great spruce and
balsam forests of northern New England and
Canada.
List of Transient Visitants.
Pied-billed Grebe.
Loon.
Blue-winged Teal.
Green-winged Teal.
Pintail.
Canada Goose.
American Coot.""'
Wilson's Snipe.
Seinipalinated Sandpiper.
Solitary Sandpiper.
Seniipalmated Plovei'.
Short-eared Owl.
* Not common.
f Irregular.
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
Yellow-bellied Wood-
pecker.
Olive-sided Flycatcher.*
Yellow-bellied Fly-
catcher.
Traill's Flycatclier.*
Rusty Blackbird.
Bronzed Grackle.
Nelson Sharp-tailed Spar-
row.*
Acadian Sliar p-tai led
Sparrow.*
W h i t e - c r o w n e d Spar-
row. *
Lincoln's Sparrow.*
Fox Sparrow.
Philadelphia Vireo.*
Blue-headed Vireo.
Nashville Warbler.
Tennessee Warbler.
Cape May Warbler.*
Black-throated Blue War-
bler.
Myrtle Warbler.
Magnolia Warljler.
Bay-breasted Warbler.*
Bhick-poll Warbler.
Bluckburnian Warbler.
Black-throated Green War-
bler.
Yellow Palm Warbler.
Small-billed Water Thrush.
Connecticut Warbler.*
Mourning Warbler.*
Wilson's Warbler.
Canadian Warbler.
Titlark.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet.
Gray-cheeked Thrush.*
Bicknell's Thrush.*
Swainson's Thrush.
Hermit Thrush.
SUMMER RESIDENTS.
The term Summer Resident is applied to those
species which come to us from tlie south in the
spring, rear their young, and return to the south
in the fall. Summer Residents, therefore, are pres-
ent not only during the summer months, but may
arrive in late February or early March, and remain
until late November or early December.
As a rule, the first species to come in the spring
are the last to leave in the fall, while the later
arrivals are among the first departures.
Species that come iu March or early April are
* Not common.
15
10
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
present a month or more before beginning to nest,
but those that come in May may be found nest-
building within a few days after their arrival.
List of Summer Residents.
Laughing Gull.*
Common Tern.*
Wood Duck.*
Great Blue Heron.*
Little Green Heron.
Black-crowned Night
Heron.
American Bittern.*
Least Bittern.
Clapper Rail.
King Rail.*
Virginia Rail.*
Woodcock.
Spotted Sandpiper.
Killdeer.*
Mourning Dove.
Osprey.
Barn Owl.*
Yellow-billed Cuckoo.
Black-billed ("uckoo.
Belted Kingfisher.
Nighthawk.
Whip-poor-will.
Cliimney Swift.
Ruby-throated Humming-
bird.
Kingbird.
Crested Flycatcher.
Phoebe.
Least Flycatcher.
Acadian Flycatcher.
Wood Pewee.
Baltimore Oriole.
Orchard Oriole.
Red-winged Blackbird.
Purple Grackle.
Bobolink.
Meadowlark.
Cowbird.
Grasshopper Sparrow,
nenslow's Sparrow.*
Swamp Sparrow.
Field Sparrow.
Vesper Sparrow,
Chipping Sparrow.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
Towhee.
Indigo Bunting.
Scarlet Tanager.
Barn Swallow.
Rough-winged Swallow.*
Cliff Swallow.
Bank Swallow.
Tree Swallow.
Purple ]Martin.
Red-eyed Vireo.
Warbling Vireo.
Yellow-throated Vireo.
White-eyed Vireo.
Black and White War-
bler.
Blue-winged Warbler.
Worni-eating Warbler.*
Yellow Warbler.
*Not common.
OBJECTIVE SEASONAL LESSONS.
11
Chestnut-sided Warbler.
Prairie Warbler.
Redstart.
Ilooded Warbler.
Oven-bird.
Louisiana Water Thrush.
Maryland Yellowthroat.
Kentucky Warbler.*
Yellow-breasted Chat.
Catbird.
Brown Thrasher.
House Wren.
Short-billed Marsh Wren.
Long- billed Marsh Wren.
Veery.
Wood Thrush.
Robin.
Blueliird.
* Not common.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
based on observations made in the vicinity of new
york city.
Januaky.
Probably during no other month is there less
movement among our birds than in January. All
the regular "Winter Visitants have come ; the Fall
Migrants, which may have lingered until December,
have gone, and the earliest Spring Migrants Avill not
arrive before the latter part of Februar}' or early in
March. In fact, January is the only month in the
year in which, as a rule, some birds do not arrive
or depart. This rule, how^ever, may be broken by
such irregular birds as the Pine Grosbeak and Red-
poll, and, south of the latitude of jSTew York city,
by the Snowflake and Crossbill, birds which are
wholly absent some winters and abundant others.
The only birds usually to be found in January,
therefore, are the Permanent Eesidents and regu-
lar "Winter Visitants. Singing, mating, nesting,
molting, migrating — events which, in their season,
play so important a part in a bird's life — do not con-
cern the birds of January. "With them food is the
one important question, and their movements at this
season are governed solely by the food supply.
Snow may fall and winds may blow, but as long as
the birds find sufficient to eat, they give small heed
12
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR. 18
to the weather. AVhere seed-bearing weeds are
accessible, there we may look for J uncos and Tree
Sparrows ; a cedar-tree filled with berries often
tempts Robins, Bluebirds, and Wax wings to win-
ter near it. I recall a sheltered pile of buckwheat
chaff at Englewood, IS^. J., which furnished food
for a small flock of Mourning Doves all one winter.
In Central Park, New York city, a Mockingbird,
who had evidently escaped from a cage, fed upon
the berries of a privet tree, and survived in apparent
comfort the most severe winter weather. Food,
therefore, rather than temperature, is the all im-
portant factor in a bird's life at this season.
BIRDS OP THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Winter Visitants (see page 7).
February.
The conditions prevailing in the bird world dur-
ing January will be practically unchanged until the
latter part of February. Then, should there be a
period of milder weather, we may expect to hear
the Song Sparrow and Bluebird inaugurate the sea-
son of song. An unusually warm day, earlier in
the month, may have tempted either or both of these
birds to prematurely welcome spring, but as a rule
we do not hear them until late in February, and then
only under favorable conditions.
The song of these birds bids us keep watch f6r the
earliest inigrants. the Robin, Purple Grackle, and
14 THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
Red- winged Blackbird, birds wliich pass the winter
such a short distance south of us that they appear
at the first sign of returning spring.
Further confidence in the growth of the new year
is shown by the Great Horned Owl, one of our less
common species, who begins nesting late in February
or early in March.
But in spite of these movements among the birds,
February is, generally speaking, a winter month,
and it is only in exceptional years that we shall find
much change in our avifauna.
BUIDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Winter Visitants (see page 7).
Migrants.
February 15 to 28, in favorable seasons.
Plate
A'o.
37. Purple Grackle.
Rusty Blackbird.*
Plate
8i. Red-winged Blackbird.
89. Robin.
Birds Nesting.
Great named Owl— February 20-28.
March.
While March is sure to witness a general north,
ward movement among the birds, the date of their
arrival is as uncertain as the weather of the month
itself. Continued severe weather prevents their ad-
vance, which a higher temperature as surely occa-
sions. It is well, therefore, to watch closely the
weather predictions, knowing that birds will quickly
* Transient Visitant passing further north.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR. 15
follow in the wake of a warm wave. When the
ice leaves our bays, ponds, and rivers. Ducks and
Geese will appear. Even before this event, the
Grackles, Red- winged Blackbirds, and Robins will
come in flocks and in song, and singing will become
general with the Song Sparrows and Bluebirds,
whose numbers will be greatly" increased. When
successive thaws have rendered the earth soft enough
for the Woodcock's probe, we may expect to find
him in favorable localities, searching for his fare
of earthworms. With the advent of insects, we
may look for their enemy, the Phoebe, and when
the frogs begin jieeping in the ponds and marshes,
we shall know that the spring migration is well
under way, and that Meadowlarks, Cowbirds, and
other March Migrants may be found for the seeking.
To the lover of bird music the event of the month
will be the first Fox Sparrow song; heard at this
season it is a thrilling performance.
The weather which hastens the arrival of birds
from the south, also prompts certain of our Winter
Visitants to begin their northward journey, and
after March we do not often see Redpolls, Snow-
flakes, and Northern Shrikes.
BIRDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Winter Visitants (see page 7).
The following will leave for the north :
Plate
No.
34. fTorned Lark.
50. Redpoll. I 58. Northern Shrike.
50. Snowflake. 1
Plate
No.
51. Pine Grosbeak.
16
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
Migrants.
Tlat6
No.
Appearing ivhen the Ice
leaves the Bays and Rivers.
1. Loon*
5. Pintail.*
5. Mallard.*
5. Green-winged Teal.*
5. Bliie-winged Teal.*
5. Canada Goose.*
31 arch 1 to 10.
37. Purple Grackle.
82. Red-winged Blackbird.
Rusty Blackbird.*
89. Robin.
Plate
No.
March 10 to 20.
76. Woodcock.
33. PhcEbe.
39. Meadowlark.
40. Cowbird.
47. Fox Sparrow.*
March 20 to SI.
9. Wilson's Snipe.*
23. Kingfisher.
13. Mourning Dove.
42. Swamp Sparrow.
46. White-throated Sparrow.^
March 1 to 15.
31. Barred Owl.
Birds Nesting.
March 15 to 31.
Duck Hawk.
Carolina Wren.
April.
In early A])ril, the developments in the vegetable
world, which the most casual observer cannot fail to
see, are accompanied by corresponding, but less no-
ticed, activities in the world of birds. The appear-
ance of the skunk cabbage, the blossoming of the
pussywillow and early wild flowers soon become
common knowledge; but the arrival of the Vesper,
Field, and Chipping Sparrows; of Tree Swallows,
Myrtle "Warblers, and Hermit Thrushes, is
known to comparatively few. Still, to the bird-
lover, the return of these feathered friends is of even
greater interest than the blooming of trees and plants.
* Transient Visitant passing further north.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAK.
17
The migratory movement rapidly grows in
strength, and, during the latter part of the month,
one may expect to see new comers almost daily.
It will be noted that the earlier migrants of the
month are all seed-eaters, who return just in time to
help the remaining Winter Visitants harvest what is
left of the preceding year's crop of seeds. Later,
certain insectivorous birds which catch their prey
on the wing are found; for example, the Swallows,
Swift, and Nighthawk.
BIRDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Remaining Winter Visitants (see page 7).
The following will leave for the north :
Hate Plate
No. ^o.
48. Junco. 70. Brown Creeper
49. Tree Sparrow.
Winter Wren.
71. Red-breasted Nuthatch,
72. Golden-crowned Kinglet.
Migrants.
Aipril 1 to 10.
75.
Hermit Thrush.*
2.
Pied-billed Grebe.
6.
Great Blue Heron.*
Api-il 10 to 20.
6.
Black-crowned N
ight
7.
American Bittern.
Heron.
6.
Green Heron.
18.
Osprey.
8.
Clapper Rail.
44.
Vesper Sparrow.
Savanna Sparrow.
Yellow-bellied Wood-
pecker.*
43.
Field Sparrow.
1.
Barn Swallow.
45.
Chipping Sparrow.
Yellow Palm Warbler.*
1.
Tree Swallow.
Pine Warbler.
61.
Myrtle Warbler.*
Louisiana Water Thrush.*
American Pipit.*
73.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet.*
* Transient Visitant passing further north.
18
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
Hate
Plate
No.
No.
April 20 to 80.
!i6.
Purple Martin.
11.
Spotted Sandpiper.
1.
Cliff Swallow.
10.
Seraipalinated Sandpiper.*
1.
Bank Swallow.
27.
Whip-poor-will.
Rough-winged Swallow.
28.
Chimney Swift.
60.
Black and White Warbler.
Least Flycatcher.
61.
Black-throated Green
55.
Towhee.
Warbler.
Blue-headed Vireo.
67.
Brown Thrasher.
Birds Nesting.
(In addition to the species which began to nest in March, all of
which will have eggs or young in April, the following may be
found nesting) :
Nut.
Plate
PlaU
No.
April 1 to 15.
No.
April 15 to 30.
76.
Woodcock.
71.
White - breasted
14.
Red-shouldered Hawk.
hatch.
20.
Screech Owl.
89.
Robin.
Red-tailed Hawk.
13.
Mourning Dove.
80.
American Crow,
37.
91. Purple Grackle.
Long-eared Owl.
32.
Phoebe.
90.
Bluebird.
41.
Song Sparrow.
May.
As the season advances, marked changes in tem-
perature are less likely to occur, and the migration
becomes more regular and continuous. In Febru-
ary and March there may be tAvo Aveeks or more
variation in the times of arrival of the same species
in different years ; in May we can expect to find a
given species within a day or two of a certain date,
^"^evertheless, we shall find the force of the migra-
tory current still closely dependent on meteorologic
* Transient Visitant passing further north.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR. 19
conditions, and under the encouragement of a high
temperature we may be visited by bird "waves"
which flood the woods w^ith migrants. Birds are
then, doubtless, more abundant than at any other
period of the year. As many as ten species may be
noted as arriving on the same day, w^hile the num-
ber of individuals observed may almost exceed cal-
culation. At this season it is not unusual to observe
from sixty to eighty species of birds during a few
hours' outing, and Mr. ^Y. L. Dawson records that,
with Prof. Lynds Jones of Oberlin College, he re-
corded twelve species of water birds and ninety
species of land birds in one day of field work in
Lorain County, Ohio.
After the fifteenth of the month, birds begin to
decrease in number, the Transient Visitants passing
further north, and by June 5 our bird-life is com-
posed of Permanent Eesidents and Summer Resi-
dents.
It will be noticed that with few exceptions the
birds arriving in May are insectivorous ; particularly
those insect-eating birds which obtain their food
from the vegetation. Thus, no sooner are the un-
folding leaves and opening blossoms exposed to the
attack of insects than the Warblers and Vireos ap-
pear to protect them, and the abundance of these
small birds is the distinctive feature of the bird-life
of the month.
Their diminutive size, activity, and the persistence
with which they remain in the tree-tops render their
identification in life by no means an easy matter,
and more than any of the other land birds they test
the patience of the field student.
20
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
May is preeminently the month of courtship, which
finds expression chiefly in song. Many species begin
to nest in Ma.y, but the nesting season reaches its
height the following month.
BIRDS OP THE MONTH.
Pekmanent Residents (see page 6).
Migrants.
Plate
May 1 to 10.
10. Common Tern.
Solitary Sandpiper.*
10. Seniipalmated Plover.*
33. Yellow. billed Cuckoo.
Black-billed Cuckoo.
37, 91. Nighthawk.
39, 91. Ruby-throated Hum-
mingbird.
31, 91. Crested Flycatcher.
30. Kingbird.
35. Baltimore Oriole.
36. Orchard Oriole.
88, 91. Bobolink.
Grasshopper Sparrow.
83. Indigo Bunting.
54. Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
85. Scarlet Tanager.
59, 91. Red-eyed Vireo.
Warbling Vireo.
59. Yellow-throated Vireo.
White-eyed Vireo.
Nashville Warbler.*
Blue-winged Warbler.
Parula Warbler.
Black-throated Blue War-
bler.*
Plate
No.
Magnolia Warbler.*
Chestnut-sided Warbler.
Prairie Warbler.
Small-billed Water
Thrush.*
Hooded Warbler.
87. Yellow Warbler.
64. 98. Maryland Yellowthroat.
65. Yellow-breasted Chat.
63, 91, 97. Oven-bird.
63. Redstart.
68, 91. House Wren.
88, 99. Catbird.
74, 100. Wood Thrush
73. Veery.
May 10 to 20.
33. Wood Pewee.
Acadian Flycatcher.
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher *
White-crowned Sparrow.*
Golden-winged Warbler.*
Tennessee Warbler.*
Worm-eating Warbler.
Cape Jlay Warbler.*
Blackburn ian Warbler.*
Bay-breasted Warbler.*
* Transient Visitant passing further north.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
21
Plate
No.
Black-poll Warbler.*
Wilson's Warbler.*
Canadian Warbler.*
69. Long-billeil jMarsh Wren.
Short-billed Marsh Wren.
Plate
No.
Olive-backed Thrush.*
Gray cheeked Thrush.*
Traill's Flycatcher.*
Mourning Warbler.*
Bicknell's Thrush.*
Birds Nesting.
(In addition to the species which began to nest in May, all
of which will have eggs or young in June, the following may be
found nesting:)
Plate
Plate
No.
No.
May 1 to 10.
Fish Crow.
5.
Wood Duck.
82.
Red-winged Blackbird.
0.
Green Heron.
39.
Meadow lark.
6.
Black-Crowned Night
45.
Chipping Sparrow.
Heron.
43.
Field Sparrow.
8.
Clapper Rail.
43.
Swamp Sparrow.
11,
93. Killdeer.
55.
Towhee.
13.
Ruffed Grouse.
44.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
Cooper's Hawk.
1.
Tree Swallow.
16.
Sparrow Hawk.
1.
Bank Swallow.
18.
O^prey.
Blue-winged Warbler.
23.
Kingfisher.
Hooded Warbler.
36.
Flicker.
60.
Black and White Warbler.
44.
Vesper Sparrow.
63.
Redstart.
Savanna Sparrow.
Worm-eating Warbler.
84.
Cardinal.
63,
91, 97. Oven-bird.
1.
Barn Swallow.
67.
Brown Thrasher.
King Rail.
88,
99. Catbird.
May 10 to 20.
70.
Chickadee.
Virginia Rail.
74.
100. Wood Thrush.
25.
Red-headed Woodpecker.
73.
Veery.
29,
91. Ruby-throated Hum-
mingbird.
May 20 to 31.
Acadian Flycatcher.
Least Bittern.
81.
Blue Jay.
11.
Spotted Sandpiper.
* Transient Visitant passing further north.
22
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
Plate
Plate
No.
No.
77.
Bob-white.
53.
Purple Finch.
17.
Sharp-shinned Hawk.
White-eyed Vireo.
15,
93. Marsh Hawk.
59,
96. Red-eyed Vireo.
22.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo.
Warbling Vireo.
Black-billed Cuckoo.
59.
Yellow-throated Vireo.
24.
Downy Woodpecker.
86.
Purple Martin.
Hairy Woodpecker.
Rough-winged Swallow.
28.
Chimney Swift.
1.
Cliff Swallow.
30.
Kingbird.
Chestnut-sided Warbler.
Least Flycatcher.
Prairie Warbler.
88,
91. Bobolink.
65.
Yellow-breasted Chat.
36.
Orchard Oriole.
64,
98. Maryland Yellow
35.
Baltimore Oriole.
throat.
Grasshopper SpaiTOW.
69.
Long-billed Marsh Wren.
83.
ludigo Bunting.
June.
After June 5 we may be reasonably sure that
every bird seen has, or has had, a nest in our vicinity.
Several of the birds which began nesting in April —
for instance, the Phoebe, Song Sparrow, Eobin,
and Bluebird — will rear second broods in June,
while the young of other April nesting birds, such
as the Red-shouldered Hawk, Screech Owl, and
Crow, may not leave the nest until June. All
the birds that began nesting in May will still be
occupied with household afifairs in June; and when
we add to these the late-breeding species which wait
for June before settling their domestic arrange-
ments, it will be seen that among birds June is the
home month of the year.
Nest-building, egg-laying, incubating, and the
care of the young now make constant and excep-
tional demands on birds, who, in response, exhibit
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR, 23
traits which at other times of tlie year they give no
evidence of possessing. Singing now reaches its
highest development, and certain call-notes are
heard only at this season. The numberless actions
incident to courtship; the intelligence displayed in
nest-building: the choice of special food for the
young ; the devotion which prompts the parents
to recklessly expose themselves in the protection
of their offspring — all these manifestations of the
bird-mind may be observed in Jane.
A feature of the bird-life of the month is the for-
mation, usually in young second-growth woods, of
roosts which are nightly frequented by the now
fully grown young of such early-breeding birds as
the Purple Grackle and Robin. When a second
brood is raised, as with the Robin, the young of the
first brood may be accompanied to the roost by
the male parent, but in the one-brooded Grackle
the roost is used by both adults and young.
BIRDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Summer Residents (see page 10).
Birds Nesting.
(In addition to the species which began to nest in May, all of
which will have eggs or young in June, the following may be
found nesting:)
Plate
Plate
No.
No.
June 1 to 10.
85.
Scarlet Tanager.
Laughing Gull.
27, 91. Nighthawk.
June 10 to 20.
27. Whip-poor-will.
10.
Common Tern.
31, 91. Crested Flycatcher.
57,
91. Cedar Wax wing.
33, 91. Wood Pewee.
52.
American Goldfinch
24 the bird-life of a year.
July.
The full development of the bird year is attained
in June, and as early as the first week in July, when,
among some migratory birds, there are evidences
of preparation for the journey southward, the sea-
son begins to wane. The young of certain species
which rear but one brood have now left the nest,
and, accompanied by their parents, Avander about the
country. In localities w^hich w^e had thoroughly
explored in June, w^e ma}^ therefore find species not
met W' ith before. In some cases, these families join
others of their kind, forming small flocks, the
nucleus of the great gatherings seen later. Ex-
amples are Grackles, Red-winged Blackbirds, and
Tree Swallows. The latter rapidly increase in num-
ber, and by July 10 we may see them, late each
afternoon, flying to their roosts in the marshes.
During the first w^eek in the month we shall also
find that certain birds have concluded their season
of song.
Bobolinks and Red-winged Blackbirds are rarely
heard after the tenth of the month ; their young are
reared, the cares of nesting-time have passed, and,
with other one-brooded birds, they begin to renew
their w^orn breeding plumages by molting. After the
fifteenth Ave miss the voices of the Veery, Orchard
and Baltimore Orioles, Chat, Brown Thrasher, and
others. But in place of the songs of these more
prominent members of the bird choir, we notice the
calls of certain young birds who, long after they
have left the nest, are still dependent on their par-
ents; thus the squawkings of young Crows and trem-
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR. 25
ulous cries of immature Baltimore Orioles are char-
acteristic of the season.
BIRDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Summer Residents (see page 10).
August.
With the TTiajoritj of our nesting birds, family-
cares are ended in August, and at this season they
completely renew their worn plumages by molting.
As every keeper of cage-birds well knows, this is a
trying period in a bird's life. Wild birds molt more
quickly than caged ones, and it is possible that the
physical strain to which the growth of new feathers
subjects them may be more severe. However this
may be, birds when molting are less in evidence than
at any other time. What becomes of many of our
birds in August, it is difficidt to say. Baltimore
Orioles, for example, are rarely seen from August 1
to 20, but after the latter date they reappear clad
in new plumage and are then in nearly full song.
So apparently complete is the disappearance of
birds in August that before the fall migration daily
brings new arrivals from the north, one may spend
hours in the woods, and hear only the Red-eyed
Vireo and Wood Pewee, August's own songsters.
Late in the month, migrants from the north will be
found travelling through the woods in small com-
panies, but the characteristic bird-life of August
will be found in the marshes. There the Swallows
26
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
come in increasing numbers to their roosts in the
reeds, while Red-winged Blackbirds, and Bobolinks
under the alias of Reedbird, are abundant where the
wild rice grows.
August is practically the last month of the nest-
ing season as well as of the song season. The late-
breeding Goldfinch and Waxwing are occupied with
family matters in August, and Song Sparrows some-
times rear a third brood in this month; but with
these exceptions, birds are rarely found nesting in
Augusts
BIRDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6.)
Summer Residents (see page 10).
Migrants arriving from the North.
Plate
No.
August 1 to 15.
7. Sora.*
10. Semipalmated Sandpiper.*
10. Semipal muted Plover.*
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.*
Giolden-winged Warbler.*
Chestnut- sided Warbler.*
Canadian Warbler.*
Small-billed Water
Thrush.*
August 15 to 31.
Olive-sided Flvcatcher.*
Hate
No.
Tennessee Warbler.*
Nashville Warbler.*
Parula Warbler.*
Cape May Warbler.*
61. Black-throated Green War
bier.*
Black-throated Blue War
bier.*
Magnolia Warbler.*
Blackburnian Warbler.*
Wilson's Warbler.*
71. Red-breasted Nut^
hatch, f
* Transient Visitant passing further south.
f Irregular Winter Visitant.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR. 27
September.
The student whose patience has been sorely tried
by the comparative scarcity of birds in August, will
find that in September his observations in the field
will be attended by far more interesting results.
The first marked fall in the temperature is sure to
be followed by a flight of migrants which, like the
" waves" of May, will flood the woods with birds.
The larger number will be Warblers; indeed, Sep-
tember, with May, is characterized by the abundance
of these small birds.
Birds of the year will outnumber the adults, and,
in most cases, their plumage will be quite unlike that
worn by their parents in May, while, in many in-
stances, even the adults themselves will appear in a
changed costume. Ofteu this new dress will re-
semble that of the immature bird, a fact which
accounts for the apparent absence of old birds in
the fall migration.
As a rule, fall plumages are less striking than those
of spring, and when, in addition, it is remembered
that birds are not in song, and that the foliage is
much denser, the greater difficulty of field identifi-
cation at this season will be appreciated.
In September more migrating birds are killed by
striking lighthouses than in any other month of the
year. This is doubtless owing to the fact that
stormy or foggy weather is more apt to prevail in
September than during any other period of active
migration; that the majority of the migrants are
young and inexperienced, and that in September mi-
grants are more numerous than in any other month.
28
THE BIBD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
About September 25, our more common Winter
"Visitants arrive from the north, and after tbat date
birds rapidly decrease in number.
Few songs are heard during the month ; the
characteristic bird-notes beiag the sharp Itee-yer of
the Flicker, and the calls of Blue Jays gathering
their autumn toll from the chestnut trees.
BIRDS OP THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Summer Residents (see page 10).
The following will depart for the south:
Plate
PlaU
No.
September 1 to 10.
No.
September 20 to 30.
Acadian Flycatcher.
10.
Common Tern.
30.
Orchard Oriole.
6.
Little Green Heron.
Rough-winged Swallow.
29.
Hummingbird.
Worm-euting Warbler.
30.
Kingbird.
Blue- winged Warbler.
31.
Crested Flycatcher.
33.
Wood Pewee.
Septertiber 10 to 20.
54.
59.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
Y^'ellow-throated Vireo.
35.
Baltimore Oriole.
Warbling Vireo.
86.
Purple Martin.
Hooded Warbler.
87.
Yellow Warbler.
Louisiana Water Thrush
65.
Yellow-breasted Chat.
73.
Veery.
Migrants arriving from the North.
September 1 to 10.
Lincoln's Sparrow.*
Black-poll Warbler.*
Connecticut Warbler.*
September 10 to SO.
9. Wilson's Snipe.*
Blue- headed Vireo.*
Olive-backed Thrush.*
Bicknell's Thrush.*
September 20 to SO.
Herring Gull.f
Green-winged Teal.*
* Transient Visitant passing further south.
f Winter Visitant.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
29
PlcUe
Plate
No.
No.
5.
Blue-winged Teal.*
8.
American Coot.*
70.
48.
J unco, f
72.
46.
Wliite-throated Sparrow. *i
White-crowned Sparrow.*
72.
61.
Myrtle Warbler.*
Yellow Palm Warbler.*
Brown Creeper. f
Golden-crowned Kinglet. f
Ruby-crowned Kinglet.*
Winter VVren.f
Gray-cheeked Thrush.*
October.
Early October generally brings the first killing
frost, depriving insectivorous birds of a large part
of their food, and of necessity forcing them to
journey southward. Flycatchers, Warblers, Vireos,
and Sw^allows now take their departure, and after
the fifteenth of the month few insect-eating birds
remain, except those which, like Woodpeckers,
feed on insects' larv^ or eggs.
This is the season of Sparrows. In countless
numbers they throng old stubble, potato, or corn,
fields, doing untold good by destroying the seeds
of noxious weeds. Song, Field, Chipping, and Ves-
per Sparrows may be found in flocks, all harvesting
the year's crop of seeds, and with them will be the
lately arrived Juncos, Tree and Fox Sparrows.
When disturbed, they seek shelter in the nearest
hedgerow, and their mingled notes produce a twit-
tering cliorus, in which it is difficult to distinguish
the voices of individual birds.
This, however, will not be the only bird music
of the month. Certain species now have a brief
* Transient Visitant passing further south.
f Winter Visitant.
30
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
second song period, and on the brighter days of the
month we may hear Song, White- throated, and Fox
Sparrows, Phoebes, and Ruby-crowned Kinglets in
song.
The diurnal migration of Crows and Hawks is a
feature of the bird-life of the month. In scattered
companies they string across the sky, en route to
more productive feeding grounds.
BIRDS OF THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Remaining Summer Residents (see page 10).
The following will depart for the south
Plate
Plate
No.
October 1 to 10.
No.
Odoler 10 to SO.
6.
Black-crowned N
ght
11.
Spotted Sandpiper.
Heron.
27.
Whip-poor-will.
23.
Yellow-hilled Cuckoo.
27.
Nightluiwk.
Black-billed Cuckoo.
59.
Red-eyed Vireo.
28.
Chimney Swift.
G4.
iMaryland Yellowthroat.
Least Flycatcher.
69.
Long-billed Marsh Wren.
38.
Bobolink.
Short-billed Marsh Wren
Grasshopper Sparrow.
68.
House Wren.
83.
Indigo Bunting.
67.
Brown Thrasher.
84.
Scarlet Tanager.
88.
Catbird.
1.
Barn Swallow.
1.
1.
Cliff Swallow.
Bank Swallow.
Odoler 20 to SI.
White-eyed Vireo.
2.
Pied-billed Grebe.
60.
Black and White Warbler.
32.
Pliosbe.
G3
Redstart.
55.
Towhee.
fi3.
Oven-bird.
1.
Tree Swallow.
74.
Wood Thrush.
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAK.
31
Migrants arriving from the North.
PlaU
Plate
No.
3.
5.
October 1 to 10.
Loon.*
Pintail.*
No.
October 10 to 20.
47. Fox Sparrow.*
October 20 to SU
5.
Mallard.*
34. Horned Lark.f
5.
Canada Goo?e.*
Pine Finch.f
Bronzed Grackle.*
49. Tree Sparrow.f
Rnsty Blackbird.*
51). Snowflake.f
American Pipit.
50. Redpoll. f
75.
Hermit Thrush.
KoVE
58. Northern Shrike.f
MBEB.
It is an interesting fact that the last migrants to
leave in the fall are the first to arrive in the spring.
The bird-life of November, when the fall migra-
tion is practically concluded, closely resembles, there-
fore, that of March, when the spring migration is
inaugurated.
The reason for this similarity is to be found in
the fact that both months furnish birds Avith essen-
tially the same kind of food. Thus the Loon, Grebes,
Ducks, Geese, and Kingfisher remain until Novem-
ber or early December, when the forming of ice de-
prives them of food and forces them to seek open
water. Woodcock and Snipe linger until they can
no longer probe the frost-hardened earth; but the
thaws of March will bring all these birds back to us
by restoring their food.
* Transient Visitant passing further south,
f Winter Visitant.
32 THE BIRD-LIFE OF A YEAR.
Certain Sparrows stay with us until the weeds
bearing the seeds on which they feed are covered
by snow, when they are compelled to retreat fur-
ther southward, returning, however, as soon as
March suns lay bare the earth.
Few birds' songs are heard in November. In
some sheltered, sun- warmed hollow. Song and White-
throated Sparrows may continue in voice, but the
characteristic bird-note of the month is the sweet,
minor " scatter-call " of Bob- whites, who, after their
sudden flight from the sportsman, endeavor to find
one another by a questioning, whistled where-are-
you ? lohere-are-yoit f
BIRDS OV THE MONTH.
Permanent Residents (see page 6).
Remaining Summer Residents (see page 10).
The following leave for the south, concluding the fall migra-
tion :
Plate
Plate
No.
No.
5.
Wood Duck.
37. Purple Grackle.
6.
Great Blue Heron.
40. Covvbird.
7.
American Bittern.
44. Vesper Sparrow.
76
Woodcock.
43. Field Sparrow.
13.
Mourning Dove.
45. Chipping Sparrow
23.
Belted Kingfisher.
42. Swamp Sparrow.
83.
Red-winged Blackbird.
Dece
MBEE.
The character of the bird -life of December depends
largely upon the mildness or severity of the season.
Should the ponds and streams remain open, the
THE BIRD-LIFE OF A TEAR. 33
ground be unfrozen, and little or no snow fall,
many of the migrant species of November Avill
linger into December. They rarely are found,
however, after the middle of the month, when our
bird-life is reduced to its simplest terms, being com-
posed only of the ever-present Permanent Residents
and the Winter Visitants.
The comparative scarcity of food now forces birds
to forage actively for provisions, and when a supply
is found they are apt to remain until it is exhausted.
Their wanderings lead them over large areas, and
our dooryards and orchards may often be visited
by species which, when food is more abundant, do
not leave their woodland haunts. An excellent
way in which to attract them is to provide them
with suitable food. Crumbs and seeds scattered in
some place where they will not be covered by snow,
or blown away, will bring Juncos, Tree Sparrows,
and Purple Finches ; an old seed-tilled sunflower
head may prove a feast for Goldfinches, while bits
of meat, suet, or ham bone hung from trees will be
eagerly welcomed by Chickadees, Nuthatches, and
Downy Woodpeckers.
LISTS OF BIRDS
OBSERVED AT WASHINGTON, D. C. ; PHILADELPHIA, PA. ;
PORTLAND, CONN. ; CAMBRIDGE, MASS. ; ST. LOUIS, MO. ;
OBERLIN, O., AND MILWAUKEE, WIS.
The dates given iu the preceding review of the
bird-life of the year will not, of course, hold good for
localities far removed from the vicinity of New York
city. Notes from various localities on the birds in-
cluded in " Bird-Life " are, therefore, appended as a
guide to students living in other parts of the eastern
United States. These notes have been generously
contributed by ornithologists whose long-continued
observations make them the authorities on the birds
of the sections from which they write. "^
NOTES FROM WASHINGTON, D. C, ON BIRDS
INCLUDED IN "BIRD-LIFE."
By Dr. C. W. Richmond.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Common Winter Visitant, August 25
to April or May.
Loon. — Common Winter Visitant, September to April 25.
Herring Gull. — Common Winter Visitant, October to
March.
Common Tern. — Irregular Transient Visitant, sometimes
common.
Wood Duck. — Uncommon Permanent Resident.
* The dates given in the following lists of birds are the average
dates on which the species occur.
34
BIRDS OBSERVED AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 85
Pintail. — Winter Visitant, October to April.
Mallard. — Common Winter Visitant.
Green- winged Teal. — Common Winter Visitant, September
to April.
Blue-winged Teal. — Common Winter Visitant, September
to April.
Canada Goose. — Winter Visitant, and rather common
Transient Visitant, October to April.
Great Blue Heron. — Kather common, absent only in mid-
winter.
Little Green Heron. — Very common Summer Resident,
April 15 to September.
American Bittern. — Not uncommon Summer Resident ;
occasional in winter.
Sora. — Common Transient Visitant, March ; July to No-
vember.
Clapper Rail. — Accidental ; one record.
American Coot. — Common Transient Visitant, March to
May ; September to October 15.
Woodcock. — Rather common from February to November;
a few winter.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Common Transient Visitant ; not com-
mon Summer Resident, April 5 to September 30.
Wilson's Snipe. — Common Transient Visitant, March to
May; September to November; occasional in winter.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — Rax'e Transient Visitant, May ;
August to October.
Killdeer. — Permanent Resident, most abundant in migra-
tions.
Semipalmated Plover. — Casual, three specimens. May ; Au-
gust.
Bob- white. — Common Permanent Resident.
Ruffed Grouse. — Not common Permanent Resident.
Mourning Dove. — Permanent Resident, common except in
winter.
Turkey Vulture. — Abundant Permanent Resident.
Red-shouldered Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Red- tailed Hawk. — Common Winter Visitant; rare Sum-
mer Resident.
3G BIRDS OBSERVED AT WASHINGTON, D, C.
Marsh Hawk. — Common Winter Visitant, July to April.
Sparrow Hawk. — Common Winter Visitant, rare Summer
Resident.
Sharp shinned Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Cooper's Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Bald Eagle. — Not common Permanent Resident.
Osprey. — Uncommon Summer Resident, March 25 to Oc-
tober.
Short-eared Owl. — Common Winter Visitant.
Long-eared Owl. — Common Permanent Resident.
Screech Owl. — Common Permanent Resident.
Barred Owl. — Not common Permanent Resident.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May
2 to October 15.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Rather rare Summer Resident, May
2 to October 15.
Kingfisher. — Common Permanent Resident.
Downy Woodpecker. — Common Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. — Rare Permanent Resident.
Red-headed Woodpecker.— Rather common Summer Resi-
dent ; rare Winter Visitant.
Flicker. — Common Summer Resident; rare Winter Vis-
itant.
Nighthawk. — Not common Summer Resident; abundant
Transient Visitant, April 20 to October.
Whip-poor-will. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
October.
Swift. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 15 to October
10.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird. — Common Summer Resi-
dent, April 28 to September.
Kingbird. — Common Summer Resident, April 20 to Sep-
tember.
Crested Flycatcher. — Very common Summer Resident,
April 25 to September.
Phoebe. — Common Summer Resident, March 5 to October.
Occasionally winters.
Least Flycatcher. — Common Transient Visitant, April 25
to May 25 ; August 28 to September 25.
BIRDS OBSERVED AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 37
Wood Pewee. — Common Summer Resident, April 26 to
October 15.
Horned Lark. — Common Winter Visitant, November to
March or April.
Crow. — Abundant Permanent Resident.
Blue Jay. — Rather rare Permanent Resident; conunon
Transient Visitant, April 28 to May 15; September
15 to October 15.
Baltimore Oriole. — Rather common Summer Resident,
April 28 to September.
Orchard Oriole. — Common Summer Resident, April 28 to
September.
Red-winged Blackbird. — Common Permanent Resident,
abundant in migrations.
Purple Grackle. — Common Transient Visitant and Sum-
mer Resident, February 20 ; a few winter.
Bobolink. — Transient Visitant, common in spring, abun-
dant in fall, May 1 to 27 ; August 5 to October 1.
Meadowlark. — Common Permanent Resident; less com-
mon in winter.
Cowbird. — Rather rare Permanent Resident; common
Transient Visitant.
Song Sparrow. — Common Permanent Resident; abundajit
Transient Visitant, March and October.
Swamp Sparrow. — Very common Transient Visitant, April
to May 15; September 25 to October 30; a few winter.
Field Sparrow. — Very common Permanent Resident.
Vesper Sparrow. — Permanent Resident, very conunon in
migrations; less so in summer and winter.
Chipping Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident; abun-
dant Transient Visitant, March 15 to November 1 ;
occasionally winters.
White-throated Sparrow. — Very common Winter Visitant,
September 28 to May 20.
White-crowned Sparrow. — Irregularly common Winter
Visitant and Transient Visitant, April 15 to May 15;
October 15 to November 30.
Fox Sparrow. — Very abundant Transient Visitant, February
5 to April 5 ; October 25 to November ; a few winter.
38 BIRDS OBSERVED AT WASHINGTON, D. C.
Junco. — Abundant Winter Visitant, October 5 to April 25.
Tree Sparrow. — Abundant Winter Visitant, November 1
to April 5.
Redpoll. — Very rare and irregular Winter Visitant.
Snowflake. — Casual in winter; one instance.
American Crossbill. — Irregular Winter Visitant, some
times abundant.
Pine Grosbeak. — Casual in winter.
Goldfincb. — Common Permanent Visitant.
Purple Finch.— Common Winter Visitant, September 15
to May 15 ; largely a migrant.
Eose-breasted Grosbeak. — Rather common Transient Vis-
itant. May 1 to 20 ; August 25 to October 1.
Towhee. — Common Sumoier Resident; very common
Transient Visitant. April 15 to May 15; September to
October 15 ; a few winter.
Indigo Bunting. — Common Summer Resident, April 28
to October 15.
Cardinal. — Common Permanent Resident ; less common
than formerly.
Scarlet Tanager.— Common Transient Visitant ; I'are Sum-
mer Resident, April 28 to October 7.
Barn Swallow. — Common Summer Resident ; more abun-
dant Transient Visitant, March 28 to September.
Cliff Swallow. — Common Summer Resident ; moi'e com-
mon Transient Visitant, April 15 to September 21.
Bank Swallow. — Rare Summer Resident, April to September.
Tree Swallow. — Common Transient Visitant, April 1 to May
25 ; July 10 to September.
Purple Martin. — Ratlier common Summer Resident, April
12 to September 15.
Cedar Waxwing. — Very common Permanent Resident ;
less so in winter.
Northern Shrike.— Rare and irregular Winter Visitant,
November to February.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Very common Summer Resident, Apinl
25 to October 15.
Warbling Vireo. — Rather common Summer Resident,
April 28 to September 10. - ■ - -
BIRDS OBSERVED AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 39
Yellow-throated Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, April
20 to September 15.
White-eyed Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, April
20 to October 7.
Black and White Warbler. — Abundant Transient Visitant ;
less common Summer Resident, April 12 to October 15.
Yellow Warbler. — Common Summer Resident ; abundant
Transient Visitant, April 18 to September 30.
Myrtle Warbler. — Abundant Winter Visitant, September
28 to May 20.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Very common Transient
Visitant, April 25 to May 28 ; August 28 to Octo-
ber 20.
Redstart. — Very abundant Transient Visitant, Apx'il 18 to
May 28 ; August 19 to September 15.
Oven-bird. — Very common Summer Resident, April 20 to
October 15.
Maryland Yellowthroat. — Abundant Summer Resident,
April 18 to October 20.
Chat. — Common Summer Resident, April 29 to September.
Catbird. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 20 to Octo-
ber ; occasionally winters.
Mockingbird. — ^^Uncommon Permanent Resident ; less nu-
merous in winter.
Brown Thrasher. — Very common Summer Resident, April
5 to October 15 ; occasionally winters.
House Wren. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to Sep-
tember.
Winter Wren. — Rather common Winter Visitant, Septem-
ber 25 to May.
Carolina Wren. — Common Permanent Resident.
Long-billed Marsh Wren. — Very numerous Summer Resi-
dent, April 30 to October.
Brown Creeper. — Common Winter Visitant, September
25 to April 25.
Carolina Chickadee. — Very common Permanent Resident,
particularly in winter.
Tufted Titmouse. — Very common Permanent Resident ,
more so in winter.
40 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Common Transient Visitant,
and Winter Visitant ; less common Summer Resident.
Red-breasted Nutliatch. — Irregularly abundant Winter Vis-
itant, sometimes rare, September 15 to May 10.
Golden-crowned Kinglet. — Abundant Winter Visitant, Oc-
tober 5 to April 27.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Abundant Transient Visitant,
April 5 to May 10 ; September 25 to November 1 ; oc-
casionally winters.
Veery. — Common Transient Visitant, April 26 to May 28 ;
August 20 to September 30.
Wood Thrush. — Common Summer Resident, April 20 to
October 15.
Hermit Thrush. — Very common Transient Visitant ; some-
times not uncommon Winter Visitant, April 4 to May
15 ; October 15 to November.
Robin. — Rather common Summer Resident ; abundant
Transient Visitant from February to April ; irregularly
common in winter.
Bluebird. — Common Permanent Resident.
NOTES FROM A LOCALITY SLIGHTLY NORTH
OF PHILADELPHIA, PA., ON THE BIRDS IN-
CLUDED IN "BIRD-LIFE."
By Witmer Stone.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Common Transient Visitant.
Loon. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant and less
frequent Winter Visitant, October 5 to May 1.
Herring Gull. — Common Winter Visitant, October 1 to
April 1.
Common Tern. — Occasional in August.
Wood Duck. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant ; occa-
sional Winter Visitant and Summer Resident.
Pintail. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant.
Mallard. — Not common Transient Visitant.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA. 41
Groen-winged Teal. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant.
Blue-winged Teal. — Common Transient Visitant.
Canada Goose. — Common Transient Visitant, October 15
to April 1 5.
Great Blue Heron. — Tolerably common Summer Resident,
April 1 to November 15 ; rai'e in winter.
Little Green Heron. — Common Summer Resident, April 1
to October 1.
Black-crowned Niglit Heron. — Common Summer Resident,
April 15 to October 15 ; rare Winter Visitant.
American Bittern. — Tolerably Common Transient Visitant,
April and September to November.
Sora. — Very common Transient Visitant, April and May,
September and October.
Clapper Rail. — Very rare in Summer; very connnon
Summer Resident at Atlantic City, N. J., April 15 to
November 1.
Coot. — Not common Transient Visitant; occasional Winter
Visitant.
Woodcock. — Formerly common Summer Resident, now
ratber rai'e and mainly Transient Visitant and occa-
sional Winter Visitant.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Very common Summer Resident,
April 20 to October 1.
Wilson's Snipe. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant,
Marcb 20 to May 10, and October, and occasional Winter
Visitant.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — Rare. Abundant Transient
Visitant at Atlantic City, N. J., July 10 to October 1.
Killdeer. — Tolerably common Summer Resident ; occa-
sional Winter Visitant, March 20 to October 25.
Semipalmated Plover.— Rai^e. Common Ti'ansient Visitant
at Atlantic City, N. J., May 10 to June 1 ; July 19 to
September 15.
Bob -white. — Formerly common Permanent Resident;
scarcer in winter ; now becoming rare and mainly Tran-
sient Visitant.
Ruffed Grouse. — Formerly common Permanent Resident ;
now rare ; mainly in fall.
17
42 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA.
Mourning Dove. — Common Summer Resident and occa-
sional Winter Visitant ; March to November.
Turkey Vulture. — Tolerably common Summer Resident ;
occasional Winter Visitant.
Red-shouldered Hawk. — Tolerably common Permanent
Resident.
Red-tailed Hawk. — Common Winter Visitant ; not com-
mon in summer.
Marsh Hawk. — Common Winter Visitant (rare Summer
Resident ?)
Sparrow HaAvk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Cooper's Hawk. — Tolerably common Permanent Resident;
very common Transient Visitant.
Bald Eagle. — Not Common Permanent Resident.
Osprey. — Tolerably common in Summer ; very common
Summer Resident on New^ Jersey coast and Delaware
Bay, March 20 to October 15.
Short-eared Owl. — Irregularly common Winter Visitant.
Long-eared Owl. — Not common Permanent Resident.
Screech Owl. — Very common Permanent Resident.
Barred Owl. — Rare; mostly in winter.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May
8 to October 1.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Rare Summer Resident ; tolerably
common Transient Visitant, May 8 to October 1.
Kingfisher, —Common Summer Resident; occasional Win-
ter Visitant.
Downy Woodpecker. — Common Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. — Rare; mainly in winter.
Red-headed Woodpecker. — Irregularly common Transient
Visitant in fall ; tolerably common Summer Resident,
but local ; occasional Winter Visitant.
Flicker. — Very common Summer Resident, March 25 to
October 25 ; occasional during winter.
Nighthawk. — Common Transient Visitant; tolerably com-
mon, but rather local Summer Resident, May 4 to Octo-
ber 10.
Whip-poor-will. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant;
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA. 43
common Summer Resident in New Jersey, within t\ven-
ty miles of Philadelphia ; April 22 to Ssptember 30.
Swift. — Very common Summer Resident, April 15 to Octo-
ber 10.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird. — Common Summer Resi-
dent, May 7 to September 25.
Kingbird. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to Septem-
ber 1.
Crested Flycatcher. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to
September 1.
Phoebe. — Common Summer Resident; occasional Winter
Visitant, March 20 to October 25.
Least Flycatchei*. —Tolerably common Transient Visitor,
May 1 to 15 ; September G to 15.
Wood Pewee. — Common Summer Resident, May 6 to Sep-
tember 20.
Horned Lark. — Irregular Winter Visitant.
Crow. — Very common Permanent Resident.
Blue Jay. — Common Permanent Resident; less abundant
in winter; most plentiful in fall.
Baltiraoi'e Oriole. — Tolerably common Summer Resident,
May 1 to September 1.
Orchard Oriole. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to Sep-
tember 1.
Red- winged Blackbird. — Common Summer Resident, Feb-
ruary 20 to November ; rather common Winter Visitant.
Purple Grackle. — Common Summer Resident, February 20
to November; occasional Winter Visitant.
Bobolink. — Tolerably common Ti-ansient Visitant, May 1
to 15 ; common Transient Visitant, August 25 to Sep-
tember 20.
Meadowlark. — Common Permanent Resident.
Cowbird. — Common Summer Resident, April 1 to October;
occasional Winter Visitant.
Song Sparrow. — Abundant Permanent Resident.
Swamp Sparrow. — Tolerably common Permanent Resident ;
more abundant in migrations.
Field Sparrow. — Very common Summer Resident, March
18 to October ; occasional Winter Visitant.
44 BIRDS OBSERVED JSEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA.
Vesper Sparrow. — Common Summer Eesident, April 2 to
November 1; occasional Winter Visitant.
Chipping Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, March 30
to October 20.
White-throated Sparrow. — Very Common Transient Vis-
itant, September 20 to May 20 ; Common Winter Visitant.
White-crowned Sparrow. — Rare Transient Visitant, May 2
to 13; October 6 to 20.
Fox Sparrow. — Very common Transient Visitant, March
10 to April 10; October 15 to December 1; occasional
Winter Visitant.
Junco. — Very common Winter Visitant, October 1 to May 1.
Tree Sparrow. — Very common Winter Visitant, Octobex'
15 to April 15.
Redpoll. — Rare and irregular Winter Visitant.
Snowflake. — Rare and irregular Winter Visitant.
American Crossbill. — Rather rare and irregular Winter
Visitant; has been seen in May.
Pine Grosbeak. — Only casual Winter Visitant.
Goldfinch. — Very common Permanent Resident.
Purple Finch. — Tolerably common Winter Visitant, Sep-
tember 25 to May 1 ; very common Transient Visitant.
Rose- breasted Grosbeak. — Tolerably common Transient
Visitant, May 5 to May 12 ; September 5 to Octobei* 5.
Towhee. — Common Summer Resident, April 18 to Octo-
ber 20.
Indigo Bunting. — Common Summer Resident, May 10 to
October 1.
Cardinal. — Tolerably common Permanent Resident.
Scarlet Tanager. — Common Transient Visitant, May 5 to
May 18 ; September 10 to October 10 ; tolerably common
Summer Resident.
Barn Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 14 to
September 1.
Cliff Swallow. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant ;
rare Summer Resident, May 1 to September 1.
Bank Swallow. — Common but local Summer Resident,
April 8 to April 20; September 1.
Tree Swallow. — Common Transient Visitant, April 20 to
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA. 4:5
May 15; August 15 to September 1; common Summer
Resident in New Jersey, within twenty miles of Phila-
delphia.
Purple Martin. — Irregular and local Summer Resident,
April 15 to September 1.
Cedar Waxwing. — Tolerably common Summer Resident;
abundant Transient Visitant ; occasional Winter Visitant.
Northern Shrike.— Rather rare Winter Visitant, December
2 to February 5.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Very common Summer Resident, April
30 to October 10.
Warbling Vireo. — Not very common Summer Resident,
May 5 to October 10.
Yellow-throated Vireo. — Tolerably common Summer Resi-
dent, May 2 to September 15.
White-eyed Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, May 5 to
October 1.
Black and White Warbler. — Very common Transient Vis-
itant, April 23 to May 15 ; August 10 to October 5 ; less
common Summer Resident.
Yellow Warbler. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to
September 25.
Myrtle Warbler. — Very common Transient Visitant, April
15 to May 20 ; September 25 to November 1 ; found spar-
ingly, Winter Visitant.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Common Transient Vis-
itant, May 1 to May 15 ; September 1 to October 10.
Redstart. — Very common Transient Visitant ; a few breed ;
April 30 to May 20 ; August 5 to October 5.
Oven-bird. — Common Summer Resident, April 30 to Octo-
ber 6.
Maryland Yellowthroat.— Very common Summer Resi-
dent, April 25 to October 12.
Chat. — Common Summer Resident, May 5 to September 20.
Catbird. — Very common Summer Resident, May 3 to Octo-
ber 18 ; one winter i*ecord.
Mockingbird. — Rare straggler.
Brown Thrasher. — Common Summer Resident, April 22 to
October 20 : occasional in winter ; a few records.
•iO BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PHILADELPHIA, PA.
House Wren. — Tolerably common Summer Resident, April
25 to October 5.
Winter Wren. — Common Winter Visitant, September 25
to April.
Carolina Wren. — Tolerably common Permanent Resident.
Long-billed Marsh Wren. — Common Summer Resident ; a
few winter.
Brown Creeper. — Common Transient Visitant ; less com-
mon Winter Visitant, September 20 to April 15.
Black-capped Chickadee. — Not common Winter Visitant,
October 24 to March 1.
Tufted Titmouse. — Rather common Permanent Resident.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Common Permanent Resident ,
less numerous in summer.
Red-breasted Nuthatch.— Transient Visitant ; irregularly
abundant in fall ; rare in spring ; May 15 to September
10 ; October 15 to May 15 ; and occasional Winter Vis-
itant.
Golden-crowned Kinglet. — Very common Transient Vis-
itant, September 30 to April 20 ; rather connuon Winter
Visitant.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Common Transient Visitant,
April 12 to May 1 ; September 15 to November 1.
Veery. — Common Transient Visitant, May 5 to 25 ; Sep-
tember 1 to 20.
Wood Thrush. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to Oc-
tober 1.
Hermit Thrush. — Very common Transient Visitant ; found
sparingly as Winter Visitant ; April 10 to May 4 ; Octo-
ber 10 to November 5.
Robin. — Abundant Summer Resident ; frequent but irreg-
ular Winter Visitant ; March 15 to November 10.
Bluebird. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant ; rather
rare Summer Resident ; formerly Permanent Resident.
Beginning to increase again.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PORTLAND, CONN. 47
NOTES FROM PORTLAND, CONN., ON THE BIRDS
INCLUDED IN "BIRD-LIFE."
By John H. Sage.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Transient Visitant, April 12 ; common,
September 9 to November 22.
Loon. — Not common, Transient Visitant, Aj^ril 21 ; Sep-
tember 25 to December 1.
Herring Gull. — Not common Winter Visitant, October 6
to March 8.
Wood Duck. — Common Transient Visitant, March 20 to
April 8 ; September to December 3 ; a few breed.
Pintail. — Casual Transient Visitant, October 9 to 12.
Mallard. — Rare Transient Visitant, November 5.
Green-winged Teal. — Uncommon Transient Visitant, April
6 to 8 ; September to November 26.
Blue-winged Teal. — Uncommon Transient Visitant in fall,
September 13 to October 20.
Canada Goose. — Commoia Transient Visitant, March 10 to
May 8 ; October 13 to December 15.
Great Blue Heron. — Common Transient Visitant, April 3
to May 11 ; August 21 to November 25.
Little Green Heron. — Common Summer Resident, A])ril
28 to October 14.
Black-ci'owned Night Heron. — Uncommon Summer Resi-
dent, April 15 to October 14.
American Bittern. — Not common Summer Resident, April
8 to October 24.
Sora. — Summer Resident, April to November 5.
Coot. — Transient Visitant, rare in April and May ; com-
mon, September 19 to November 14.
Woodcock. — Common Summer Resident, February 25 to
November 28.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Common Summer Resident, April 22
to September 29.
Wilson's Snipe. — Common Transient Visitant, March 18 to
48 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PORTLAND, CONN.
May 10 ; September 14 to November 30 ; one instance
of breeding.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — Common Transient Visitant in
fall, August to October 7.
Killdeer. — Accidental Visitant, not seen since April 5, 1875.
Semipalmated Plover. — Transient Visitant, May 22 to June
4 ; September.
Bob-white. — Common Permanent Resident.
Ruffed Grouse. — Common Permanent Resident.
Mourning Dove. — Common Summer Resident, March 19 to
November 30 ; occasional in winter.
Red-shouldered Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident :
less common in winter.
Red-tailed Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident ; less
common in winter.
Marsh Hawk. — Tolerably common Summer Resident, April
1 to November 2.
Sparrow Hawk. — Rather rare Permanent Resident.
Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Common Summer Resident, March
27 to October 29 ; a few wintei*.
Cooper's Hawk. — Common Summer Resident, March 18 to
October 15.
Bald Eagle. — Of irregular occurrence, April, May, June,
and December.
Osprey. — Common Transient Visitant, April 5 to May 25 ;
September 7 to October 18.
Short-eared Owl. — Common Transient Visitant, April ;
October 8 to December 7.
Long-eared Owl. — Probably a Permanent Resident. Not
uncommon in winter.
Screech Owl. — Common Permanent Resident.
Barred Owl. — Rare Permanent Resident, sometimes com-
mon in October, November, and December.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May 7
to October 17.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May 1
to September 4.
Kingfisher. — Common Summer Resident, April 5 to No-
vember 22; casual in winter.
BIEDS OBSERVED NEAR PORTLAND, CONN. 49
Downy Woodpecker. — Common Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. — Rare Permanent Resident.
Red-headed Woodpecker. — Rare Permanent Resident, some-
times common in fall ; September 20 to November 28.
Flicker. — Common Summer Resident, March 8 to Novem-
ber 2Q ; a few winter.
Nighthawk. — Common Summer Resident, April 28 to Octo-
ber 3.
Whip-poor-will. — Common Summer Resident, April 23 to
September 25.
Swift. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 19 to October 11.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird. — Common Summer Resi-
dent, May 6 to September 22.
Kingbird. — Common Summer Resident, April 28 to Sep-
tember 10.
Crested Flycatcher. — Common Summer Resident, May 4
to August
Phoebe. — Common Summer Resident, March 7 to October
14.
Least Flycatcher. — Common Summer Resident, April 21 to
September 4.
Wood Pewee. — Common Summer Resident, May 6 to
October 3.
Horned Lark. — Casual; March 22 to 25; no fall record.
Crow. — Common Permanent Resident.
Blue Jay. — Common Permanent Resident.
Baltimore Oriole. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to
September 8.
Orchard Oriole. — Summer Resident, May 10 to August.
Red- winged Blackbird. — Common Summer Resident, March
3 to November 1.
Bronzed Grackle. — Common Summer Resident, February
20 to November 8.
Bobolink. — Common Summer Resident, May 3 to October
15.
Meadowlark. — Common Summer Resident, March 8 to
October 2G ; a few winter.
Co wbird. ^Common Summer Resident, March 26 to No-
vember 6 ; occasional in winter.
50 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PORTLAND, CONN.
Song SpaiTOW. — Permanent Resident; more common from
March 5 to November 2.
Swamp Sparrow. — Not common Summer Resident, April
12 to November 2.
Field Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, Api*il 6 to
October 26 ; occasional in winter.
Vesper Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, April 4 to
October 21.
Chipping Sparrow.— Abundant Summer Resident, April 5
to October 23.
White-throated Sparrow. — Very common Transient Vis-
itant, April 13 to May 21 ; September 18 to November
12 ; occasional in winter.
White-crowned Sparrow. — Uncommon Transient Visitant,
May 12 to 22 ; October 2 to 16.
Fox Sparrow.— Abundant Transient Visitant, March 2 to
April 26 ; October 17 to November 27.
Junco. — Common Winter Visitant, September 28 to April
26.
Tree Sparrow. — Common Winter Visitant, October 26 to
April 23.
Redpoll. — Irregular Winter Visitant, November 27 to
March 31.
Snowflake.— Rather common Winter Visitant, October 25
to March 20.
American Crossbill. — Irregular in occurrence, December
10 to April 19.
Pine Grosbeak. — Irregular Winter Visitant, November 25
to March 25.
Goldfinch.— Common Permanent Resident.
Purple Finch. — Rather rare Permanent Resident; common
Transient Visitant; irregular, but sometimes common in
winter.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak.— Common Summer Resident, May
1 to September 28.
Towhee.— Common Summer Resident, April 27 to October
24.
Indigo Bunting. — Common Summer Resident, May 6 to
October 16.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR PORTLAND, CONN. 51
Scarlet Tanager. — Common Summer ResideBt, May 3 to
October 7.
Barn Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 16 to
October 19.
Cliff Swallow. — Summer Resident, less common than for-
merly. May 12 to September 14.
Bank Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 17 to
September 25.
Tree Swallow. — Summer Resident, but common only as a
migrant, April 5 to October 26.
Purple Martin. — Locally common Summer Resident, April
16 to September 12.
Cedar Waxwing. — Common Permanent Resident.
Northern Shrike. — Tolerably common Winter Visitant,
October 26 to April 3.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 30 to
October 8.
Warbling Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, April 29 to
September 17.
Yellow-throated Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, April
26 to September 21.
White-eyed Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, May .3 to
September 20.
Black and White Warbler. — Common Summer Resident,
April 27 to October 6.
Yellow Warbler. — Common Summer Resident, April 29 to
September 23.
Myrtle Warbler. — Common Transient Visitant, April 22 to
May 19 ; September 21 to October 25 ; a few winter.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Tolerably common Sum-
mer Resident, April 27 to October 21.
Redstart. — Common Summer Resident, May 2 to Septem-
ber 26.
Oven-bird. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 4 to Septem-
ber 26.
Maryland Yellowthroat. — Abundant Summer Resident,
May 3 to November 7.
Chat. — Common Summer Resident, May 6 to August.
Catbird. — Common Summer Resident, April 30 to October 14.
52 BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
Brown Thrasher. — Commou Summer Eesideut, April 22 to
October 20.
House Wren. — Tolerably common Summer Eesident, April
21 to September 2(j.
Winter Wren. — Rather common Winter Visitant, Septem-
ber 23 to March 12.
Carolina Wren. — Accidental Visitant, March.
Long-billed Marsh Wren. — Locally abundant Summer Resi-
dent, May 18 to October 26.
Brown Creeper. — Tolerably common Winter Visitant, Oc-
tober 2 to May.
Black-capped Chickadee. — Common Permanent Resident.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Tolerably common Permanent
Resident.
Red-breasted Nuthatch. — Irregular Winter Visitant, Sep-
tember 18 to May 11.
Golden-crowned Kinglet. — Common Winter Visitant, Oc-
tober 8 to April 25.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Common Transient Visitant, Api'il
8 to May 6 ; September 26 to October 26.
Veery. — Common Summer Resident, May 3 to August 30.
Wood Thrush. — Common Summer Resident, May 4 to Sep-
tember 18.
Hermit Thrush. — Common Transient Visitant, April 6 to
May 3 ; October 15 to 26 ; occasional in winter.
Robin. — Common Summer Resident, February 15 to No-
vember 21 ; a few winter.
Bluebird. — Common Permanent Resident.
NOTES FROM CAMBRIDGE, MASS., ON BIRDS
INCLUDED IN "BIRD-LIFE."
By William Brewster.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Common in April ; very common Sep-
tember to November ; breeds in one locality.
Loon. — Not common Transient Visitant, April to early
May ; September to November.
BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 53
Herring Gull. — Abundant Winter Visitant, November to
Api'il.
Common Tern. — Casual in September.
Wood Duck. — Common Transient Visitant, March and
April ; August to November ; a few breed.
Pintail. — Casual Transient Visitant, April, September and
October.
Green-winged Teal. — Uncommon Transient Visitant, Ajii'll;
September to November.
Blue-winged Teal. — Rare in sjDring ; very common, at
least formerly, August to October.
Canada Goose. — Common Transient Visitant, March and
April ; October to December.
Great Blue Heron. — Common Transient Visitant, April
and May; September to November ; occasional in
summer.
Little Green Hei'on. — Common Summer Resident, May 5
to September.
Black-crowned Night Heron. — Permanent Resident, most
common in August and September.
American Bittern. — Not common Summer Resident, April
15 to November.
Sora. — Very common Summer Resident, April 20 to Octo-
ber 20.
Coot. — Transient Visitant, rare in April; common Septem-
ber to November.
Woodcock. — Summer Resident, formerly common, fast be-
coming rare ; March to November.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Conomon Summer Resident, April 26
to September.
Wilson's Snipe. — Common Transient Visitant, April 5 to
May 5 ; September and October.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — Very common in August and
September.
Killdeer. — Accidental Visitant; two instances.
Semipalmated Plover. — Rare in spring ; sometimes com-
mon in August and September.
Bob-white. — Common Permanent Resident.
Ruffed Grouse. — Common Permanent Resident.
54 BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
Mourning Dove. — Occasional during summer in immediate
vicinity of Cambridge.
Red-shouldered Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident ; less
common in winter.
Red-tailed Hawk. — Common Winter Visitant, November to
April ; a few in summer.
Marsh Hawk. — Common Transient Visitant, March 15 to
April 15 ; September and October ; a few breed.
Sparrow Hawk. — Rather common Summer Resident, Feb-
ruary to November.
Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Uncommon Transient Visitant,
Ax^ril 15 to April 30 ; September and October ; rare
Summer Resident ; uncommon Winter Visitant.
Cooper's Hawk. — Common Transient Visitant, April, Sep-
tember, and October ; not common Summer Resident ;
rare Winter Visitant.
Bald Eagle. — Of irregular occurrence at all seasons.
Osprey. — Common Transient Visitant, April ; Septem-
ber.
Shoi't-eared Owl. — Uncommon Transient Visitant, April,
October, and November.
Long-eared Owl. — Not common Permanent Resident.
Screech Owl. — Common Permanent Resident.
Barred Owl. — Rare Permanent Resident, sometimes com-
mon in November and December.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May
12 to August.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May 15
to September 20.
Kingfisher. — Common Siunmer Resident, Ajiril 10 to Octo-
ber.
Downy Woodpecker. — Common Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. — Uncommon Winter Visitant.
Red-headed Woodpecker. — Irregular at all seasons ; some^
times common in fall.
Flicker. — Very common Summer Resident; common Win-
ter Visitant.
Nighthawk. — Not uncommon Summer Resident, May 15 to
September 25,
BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 55
Whip-poor-will. — Common Summer Eesident, April 28 to
September 20.
Swift. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 25 to Septem-
ber 20.
jRuby-thrpated Hummingbird. — Uncommon Summer Resi-
dent, May 12 to September.
Kingbird. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 5 to Septem-
ber 1.
Crested Flycatcher. — Uncommon Summer Resident, May
15 to August.
Phcebe. — Common Summer Resident, March 25 to Octo-
ber 10.
Least Flycatcher. — Abundant Summer Resident. May 1 to
August 25.
Wood Pewee. — Common Summer Resident, May 18 to Sep-
tember 10.
Horned Lark. — Common Transient Visitant, October 25 to
November 25 ; March 25 to April 5.
Crow. — Abundant Permanent Resident.
Blue Jay. — Common Permanent Resident ; abundant Tran-
sient Visitant, April and May ; September and October.
Baltimore Oriole. — Very common Summer Resident, May
8 through August.
Orchard Oriole. — Summer Resident, sometimes rather com-
mon May 15 to July.
Red-winged Blackbird. — Abundant Summer Resident,
March to August ; a few winter.
Bronzed Grackle. — Abundant Summer Resident, March to
October ; occasional in winter.
Bobolink. — Very common Summer Resident, May 8 to
September 10.
Meadowlark. — Common Summer Resident ; not common
Winter Visitant.
Cowbird. — Very common Summer Resident, May 8 to
September 10.
Song Sparrow. — Very abundant Summer Resident, Mai'ch
10 to November 1 ; locally common Winter Visitant.
Swamp Sparrow. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 12
to November 10 ; a few winter.
56 BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS,
Field Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
November 1.
Vesper Sparrow. — Very common Summer Resident, April
5 to October 15.
Chipping Sparrow. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 15
to October 25.
White-throated Sparrow. — Very common Transient Vis-
itant, April 25 to May 15 ; October 1 to November 10 ; a
few winter.
White-crowned Sparrow. — Uncommon Transient Visitant,
May 12 to 22 ; October 1 to 20.
Fox Sparrow. — Abundant Transient Visitant, March 15 to
April 20 ; October 20 to November 15.
Junco. — Rather common Winter Visitant; abundant Tran-
sient Visitant, September 20 to November 25 ; March 20
to April 20.
Tree Sparrow. — Common Winter Visitant; abundant Tran-
sient Visitant, October 25 to November 25 ; March 20 to
April 20.
Redpoll. — Irregular Winter Visitant, often very abundant,
October 25 to April 10.
Snowflake. — Common Winter Visitant, October 25 to
March 25; abundant in migi'ations.
American Crossbill. — Of irregular occurrence at all seasons.
Pine Grosbeak.— Irregular Winter Visitant, frequently
common ; sometimes abundant November to March.
Goldfinch. — Very common Permanent Resident.
Purple Finch. — Permanent Resident, very common from
March to October ; irregular, but at times abundant in
winter.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak. — Common Summer Resident, May
10 to September 10.
Towhee. — Common Summer Resident, April 25 to Octo-
ber 15.
Indigo Bunting. — Rather common Summer Resident, May
15 to September 25.
Cardinal. — Casual ; two instances.
Scarlet Tanager. — Rather common Summer Resident, May
12 to October 1.
BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 57
Barn Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, but fast de-
creasing-, April 20 to September 10.
Cliff Swallow. — Summer Resident, much less common than
formerly, April 28 to September 1.
Bank Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, Ajjiil 28 to
September 1.
Tree Swallow. — Summer Resident, formerly common, now
common only as a migrant, April 5 to October 12.
Purple Martin. — Locally common Summer Resident, April
20 to August 25.
Cedar Wax wing'. — Not common Permanent Resident ;
common Summer Resident ; abundant Transient Vis-
itant, in spring, February 1 to April 25.
Northern Shrike. — Common Winter Visitant, November 1
to April 1.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 10 to
September 10.
Warbling Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, May 10 to
September 25.
Yellow-throated Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, Ma^'
8 to September 1.
White-eyed Vireo. — Rather rare Summer Resident, May 8
to September 20 ; formerly common.
Black and White Warbler. — Very common Summer Resi-
dent, April 25 to September 5.
Yellow Warbler. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 1 to
September 30.
Myrtle Warbler. — Abundant Transient Visitant, April 18
to May 20 ; September 20 to November 3 ; a few
winter.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Very common Summer
Resident, May 1 to October 15.
Redstart. — Very common Summer Resident, May 5 to Sep-
tember 20.
Oven-bird. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 6 to Sep-
tember 15.
Maryland Yellow-throat. — Abundant Summer Resident,
May 5 to October 20.
Chat. — Rather rare Summer Resident, May 15 to (?).
18
58 BIRDS OBSERVED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
Catbird. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 6 to Septem-
ber 30.
Mockingbird.— Rare Summer Resident, March to Novem-
ber.
Brown Thrasher. — Very common Summer Resident, A^jril
25 to Oct<jber 15.
House Wren. — Locally common Summer Resident, May 1
to September 25.
Winter Wren. — Transient Visitant, rather common, Sep-
tember 2d to November 2o ; rare, April 10 to May 1 ; a
very few winter.
Long-billed Marsh Wren. — Locally abundant Summer
Resident, May 15 to October ; sometimes a few winter.
Brown Creeper. — Common Transient Visitant, rather com-
mon Winter Visitant, September 25 to May 1.
Black-capped Chickadee. — Very connnon Permanent Resi-
dent ; more numerous in fall and winter.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Permanent Resident, rare in
summer, uncommon in winter ; common in migrations.
Golden-crowned Kinglet. — Very common Transient Vis-
itant ; common Winter Visitant, September 20 to April
25.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Rather common Transient Vis-
itant, April 10 to May 5 ; October 10 to November 5.
Veery. — Very common Summer Resident, May 10 to Sep-
tember 8.
Wood Thrush. — Rather common Summer Resident, May 12
to September 15.
Hermit Thrush. — Very common Transient Visitant, Ajiril
IH to May 5 ; October 5 to November 15 ; occasionally
one or two may winter.
Robin. — Very abundant Summer Resident ; irregular Win-
ter Visitant.
Bluebird. — Common Summer Resident, March G to Novem-
ber 1 : more numerous during March and November.
BIRDS OBSERVED jSTEAR ST. LOUIS, MO. 59
NOTES FROM THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF ST. LOUIS,
MO., INCLUDING PARTS OF ST. LOUIS AND
ST. CHARLES COUNTIES, ON THE BIRDS IN-
CLUDED IN " BIRD-LIFE."
By Otto Widmann.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Common Transient Visitant ; rare
Summer Resident, April 1 to December 1.
Loon. — Rare Transient Visitant, April and October.
Herring Gull. — Transient Visitant and Winter Resident,
less common tban formerly, September 20 to May 5.
Common Tern. — Rare Transient Visitant, May and Septem-
ber.
Wood Duck. — Breeds frequently ; common in migrations in
February and Marcb ; September and October.
Pintail. — Abundant Transient Visitant, February 13 to
April 15 ; October 10 to December 1.
Mallard. — Abundant Transient Visitant and frequent Win-
ter Resident, September 15 to April 25.
Green-winged Teal. — Abundant Transient Visitant and
occasional Winter Resident, February 15 to April 25 ;
October 1 to December 15.
Blue- winged Teal. — Abundant Transient Visitant, Septem-
ber 1 to December 1.
Canada Goose. — Abundant Winter Visitant, October 15 to
April 1.
Great Blue Heron. — Common Summer Resident, April 1
to November 1.
Little Green Heron. — Common Summer Resident, April 10
to October 10.
Black-crowned Night Heron. — Tolerably common Summer
Resident, April 10 to Oct. 10.
American Bittern. — Rather rare Summer Resident, April
10 to October 20.
Sora. — Tolerably common Summer Resident and very com-
mon Transient Visitant, April 10 to November 1.
60 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR ST. LOUIS, MO.
American Coot. — Tolerably common Sunmier Resident
and v'ery common Transient Visitant, April 1 to Novem-
ber 1.
Woodcock. — Common Summer Resident, March 1 to No-
vember 15.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Common Summer Resident, April 1.^
to October 15.
Wilson's Snipe. — Common Transient Visitant, March 1 to
May 1 ; September 6 to November 20.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — Irregular Transient Visitant,
May ; August 4 to October 17.
Killdeer. — Common Transient Visitant; infrequent Sum-
mer Resident, March 10 to November 15.
Semipalmated Plover. — Tolerably common Transient Vis-
itant, April 26 to Ma}' 5 ; August 20 to September 17.
Bob-white. — Abundant Permanent Resident.
Ruffed Grouse. — Permanent Resident in hilly region south
of St. Louis.
Mourning Dove. — Abundant Summer Resident; rare Win-
ter Resident, March 10 to November 1.
Turkey Vulture. — Common Summer Resident, February
25 to November 1.
Red-shouldered Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Red-tailed Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident, most
numerous in fall and early winter.
Mansh Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Sparrow Hawk. — Common Permanent Resident.
Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Fairly common Ti-ansient Visitant,
February, March ; October to December.
Cooper's Hawk. — Rather rare Summer Resident; Transient
Visitant, more common in fall, September 15 to Novem-
ber 1 ; February 15 to March 15; sometimes winters.
Bald Eagle. — Winter Resident, becoming scarce, Septem-
ber 1 to April 1.
Osprey. — Rather common Summer Resident, April 1 to
October 1.
Short-eared Owl. — Tolerably common Winter Visitant,
October 8 to April 1.
Long-eared Owl, — Not common Winter Visitant.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR ST. LOUIS, MO. 61
Screech Owl. — Common Permanent Resident.
Barred Owl. — Common Permanent Resident.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo. — Connnon Summer Resident, April
28 to October 23.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Rare Summer Resident ; fairly com-
mon Transient Visitant, May 1 to October 15.
Kingfisher. — Common Summer Resident, March 1 to No-
vember 1.
Downy Woodpecker. — Common Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. — Fairly common Permanent Resi-
dent.
Red-headed Woodpecker. — Common Summer Resident and
frequent Winter Resident, April 15 to October 1.
Flicker. — Common Summer Resident and frequent Winter
Resident, May 15 to October 15.
Nighthawk. — Common Transient Visitant and tolerably
common Summer Resident, April 25 to October 13.
Bulk of Transient Visitants, May 5 to 25 ; August 25
to September 15.
Whip-poor-will. — Common Summer Resident, April 8 to
October 10.
Chimney Swift. — Abundar.t Summer Resident, April 1 to
October 20.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird. — Common Summer Resident,
April 25 to October 20.
Kingbird. —Common Summer Resident, April 10 to Sep-
tember 1.
Crested Flycatcher. — Common Summer Resident, April 20
to September 1.
Phoebe. — Summer Resident, less common than formerly,
March 1 to November 1.
Least Flycatcher. — Fairly common Transient Visitant,
April 28 to May 15 ; September 1 to October 15.
Wood Pewee. — Common Summer Resident, April 28 to
October 1.
Prairie Horned Lark. — Common Permanent Resident.
American Crow. — Common Permanent Resident ; abun-
dant Winter Resident.
Bb.ie Jav. — Abundant Permanent Resident.
62 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR ST. LOUIS, MO.
Baltimore Oriole. — Common Summer Resident, April 20 to
September 10.
Orchard Oriole. — Common Summer Resident, Aj)ril 20 to
September 1.
Red-winged Blackbird. — Common Summer Resident;
abundant Transient Visitant; frequent Winter Resident,
March 1 to May 15 ; September 15 to November 15.
Bronzed Grackle. — Abundant Summer Resident and Tran-
sient Visitant; rare Winter Resident, March 10 to
May 1; October 1 to November 15.
Bobolink. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant, Ai^ril
28 to May 28 ; August 20 to September 24.
Meadowlark. — Common Summer Resident; rare Winter
Resident, March 10 to November 1.
Cowbird. — Common Summer Resident ; rare Winter Resi-
dent; abundant Transient Visitant, March 10 to May 1;
September 15 to November 1.
Song Sparrow. — Common Transient Visitant; fairly com-
mon Winter Resident; rare Summer Resident; March 10
to April 15 ; September 20 to November 10.
Swamp Sparrow. — Common Transient Visitant; rare Win-
ter Resident, March 15 to May 15; September 20 to
November 10.
Field Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, March 10 to
November 1.
Vesper Sparrow. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant,
March 25 to April 10; October 15 to November 1.
Chipping Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, March 15
to October 25.
White-throated Sparrow. — Abundant Transient Visitant;
fairly common Winter Resident, March 10 to May 25;
September 25 to November 10.
White-crowned Spai'row. — Rare Winter Resident; common
Transient Visitant, April 20 to May 20; October 1 to
November 1.
Fox Sparrow. — Common Transient Visitant; fairly com-
mon Winter Resident, March 10 to April 12; October 7
to November 10.
Junco. — Abundant Transient Visitant and very common
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR ST. LOUTS, MO, 63
Winter Resident, Marcli 10 to April 20; September 20 to
November 15.
Tree Sparrow. — Common Winter Resident, November 1 to
April 1.
Redpoll. — Rare Winter Visitant, January and February.
American Crossbill. — Rare Transient Visitant, February 22
to April 1 ; middle of November.
Goldfinch. — Common Permanent Resident ; abundant
Transient Visitant, Marcli 10 to May 1 ; September 15 to
October 10.
Purple Finch. — Common Winter Resident and abundant
Transient Visitant, March 10 to May 1 ; September 15 to
November 1.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak. — Common Summer Resident, Apx'il
25 to October 10.
Towbee. — Common Summer Resident; tolerably common
Winter Resident; Transient Visitant, March 10 to April
15 ; September 25 to October 20.
Indigo Bunting-. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 25 to
October 10.
Cardinal. — Common Permanent Resident.
Lark Finch. — Fairly common Summer Resident, April 15
to September 1.
Dickcissel. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 15 to Octo-
ber 1.
Scarlet Tanager. — Common Summer Resident. April 20 to
September 24.
Barn Swallow. — Not common Summer Resident, April 10
to October 10.
Cliff Swallow. — Common Summer Resident; abundant
Transient Visitant, April 20 to September 24.
Bank Swallow. — Common Summer Resident; abundant
Transient Visitant, April 20 to September 24,
Tree Swallow.— Common Transient Visitant; rare Summer
Resident, March 15 to April 20; September 1 to October
20.
Purple Martin. — Common Summer Resident; abundant
Transient Visitant, March 20 to September 24.
Cedar Wax vying. — Permanent Resident and breeder.
64 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR ST. LOUIS, MO.
Northern Shrike. — Rare Winter Visitant, November 15 to
March 1.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, April 17 to
September 25.
Yellow-throated Vireo. — Common Summer Resident,
April 13 to October 11.
White-eyed Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, April 15
to October 15.
Black and White W^arbler. — Common Summer Resident,
April 16 to September 29.
Yellow Warbler. — Summer Resident, April 20 to August
13.
Myrtle Warbler. — Abundant Transient Visitant; frequent
Winter Resident, March 12 to May 12; September 17
to November 7.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Common Transient Vis-
itant, April 26 to May 15; August 31 to October 8.
Redstart. — Common Summer Resident, April 16 to Sep-
tember 25.
Oven-bird. — Common Summer Resident, April 12 to Oc-
tober 2.
Maryland Yellowthroat. — Common Summer Resident,
April 14 to October 2.
Chat. — Common Summer Resident, April 19 to Septem-
ber 25.
Catbird. — Common Summer Resident, April 16 to Octo-
ber 7.
Mockingbird. — Rather rare Summer Resident, and Perma-
nent Resident, March or April to October.
Brown Thrasher. — Common Summer Resident, March 25
to October 20.
House Wren. — Common Summer Resident, Api-il 9 to Oc-
tober 4.
W^inter W^ren — Rather rare Transient Visitant, March
25 to April 15 ; October 1 to 15.
Carolina Wren. — Common Permanent Resident ; not so
common as twenty years ago.
Long- billed Mai'sh Wren. — Fairly common Summer Resi-
dent, April 28 to October 28.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR ST. LOUIS, MO. 65
Brown Crfieper. — Common Transient Visitant; rare Win-
ter Visitant, March 10 to April 10 ; September 23 to
November 4.
Chickadee. — Common Permanent Resident; Black-capped
Chickadee north of Missouri River; Carolina Chicka-
dee south of it.
Tufted Titmouse. — Common Permanent Resident; less
common than formerly.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Common Permanent Resident.
Red-breasted Nuthatch. — Irregular Transient Visitant,
April 25 to May 10 ; September 4 to January 15.
Golden-crowned Kinglet. — Tolerably common Transient
Visitant; rather rare Winter Resident; March 12 to
April 10 ; September 29 to November 1.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Abundant Transient Visitant ;
rare Winter Resident, April 1 to May 6 ; September
17 to October 20.
Veery. — Tolerably cominon Transient Visitant, May 5 to
14 ; September 1 to 20.
Wood Tin-ush.— Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
September 24.
Hermit Thrush. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant,
April 1 to 27; October 1 to 25.
Robin. — Abundant Transient Visitant; common Summer
Resident ; tolerably common Winter Resident, March 1
to November 10.
Bluebird. — Tolerably common Summer Resident and fre-
quent Winter Resident; migrates chiefly between Feb-
ruary 25 and March 15; October 1 and November 10.
66 BIRDS OBSERVED AT OBERLIN, O.
NOTES FROM OBERLIN, 0., ON BIRDS INCLUDED
IN "BIRD-LIFE."
By Peof. Lynds Jones.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Uncommon Transient Visitant.
Loon. — Not conimon Ti^ansient A-^isitant, late March to
late October.
Herring Gull. — Conmnon Transient Visitant on Lake Erie,
March to May ; September to November.
Common Tern. — Sometimes common Transient Visitant.
Wood Duck. — Unconjmon Summer Resident.
Pintail. — Common Transient Visitant.
Mallard. — Now uncommon Transient Visitant.
Green-wing-ed Teal. — Rare Transient Visitant.
Blue-winged Teal. — Uncommon Transient Visitant.
Canada Goose. — Common Transient Visitant along- the
rivei*s.
Great Blue Heron. — Tolerabh" common Summer Resident,
March 20 to September 15.
Little Green Heron. — Common Summer Resident, April
20 to November 13.
American Bittern. — Tolerably common Summer Resident,
late March.
Sora. — Tolerably common Summer Resident.
American Coot. — Common Summer Resident along- the
rivers.
Woodcock. — Common Summer Resident, April to No-
vember.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Common Summer Resident, April 10
to September 15.
Wilson's Snipe. — Common Transient Visitant in spring,
March 19 to April 28.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — Uncommon Transient Vis-
itant.
Killdeer.— Common Summer Resident, March 1 to Novem-
ber 20.
BIRDS OBSERVED AT OBERLIN, O. 67
Semipal mated Plover. — Uncommon Transient Visitant.
Bob-white. — Not common Permanent Resident.
Ruifed Grouse. — Rare Permanent Resident.
Mourning' Dove. — Abundant Summer Resident, late March
to November; rare in winter.
Turkey Vulture. — Tolerably common Summer Resident,
April 1 to September 15.
Red-shouldered Hawk. — Common Summer Resident, March
to November ; rare in winter.
Red-tailed Hawk. — Not common Summer Resident, Feb-
ruary 1 to December 15; rare in winter.
Marsh Hawk. — Uncommon Sinnmer Resident.
Sparrow Hawk. — Common Summer Resident, A^jril to Oc-
tober; rare in winter.
Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Rare Permanent Resident.
Cooper's Hawk. — Not common Summer Resident ; rare in
winter.
Bald Eagle. — Rare; common at Sandusky, and fairly com-
mon along the lake shore.
Osprey. — Rare ; only seen along- the lake shore.
Sliort-eared Owl. — Rare.
Long-eared Owl. — Tolerably common Permanent Resi-
dent.
Screech Owl. — Tolerably common Permanent Resident.
Barred Owl. — Uncommon Permanent Resident.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May
10 to September.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Common Summer Resident, May
5 to September 10.
Kingfisher.— Tolerably common Summer Resident, April
to October ; rare in winter.
Downy Woodpecker. —Common Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. —Common Permanent Resident.
Red-headed Woodpecker. — Abundant Summer Resident,
April 15 to September 15; rare in wintei*.
Flicker. — Abundant Summer Resident, March to Novem-
ber; rare in winter.
Nighthawk. — Very vai^iable Summer Resident, May to
September.
68 BIRDS OBSERVED AT OBERLIN, O.
Whip-poor-will. — Common Summer Resident, along
streams only, May to September.
Chimney Swift. — Abundant Summer Resident, in towns;
April 15 to October 10.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird. — Not common Summer
Resident, May 10 to September 10.
Kingbii'd. — Common Summer Resident, April 27 to Au-
gust 10.
Crested Flycatcher. — Common Summer Resident, April 28
to October 1.
Phoebe. — Common Summer Resident; late March to Octo-
ber.
Least Flycatcher. — Common Transient Visitant in spring,
April 27 to May 22.
Wood Fewee. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 1 to
September 12.
Prairie Horned Lark. — Common Permanent Resident.
On December 18, 1897, I found both alpestris and
praticola in a flock of some one hundred and twenty-
five.
Crow. — Common Summer Resident; late February to No-
vember ; rare in winter.
Blue Jay. — Common Permanent Resident.
Baltimore Oriole. — Common Summer Resident, April 25 to
September 1.
Orchard Oriole. — Rare Summer Resident.
Red-winged Blackbird. — Common Summer Resident,
March 10 to November.
Bronzed Grackle. — Abundant Summer Resident, March to
November; rare in winter.
Bobolink. — Abundant Summer Resident, April 23 to Sep-
tember 15.
Meadowlark. — Abundant Summer Resident, March to No-
vember ; rare in winter.
Cowbird. — Abundant Summer Resident, late March to
October.
Song Sparrow. — Abundant Summer Resident, March to
November ; rare in winter.
Swamp Sparrow. — Rare Summer Resident, late April.
BIRDS OBSERVED AT OBERLIN, O. 69
Field Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, April 1 to
October 20.
Vesper Sparrow. — Abundant Summer Resident, late
March to early Nov^ember.
Chipping Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, early
April to October.
White-throated Sparrow. — Common Transient Visitant,
April 13 to May 12 ; October to November.
White-crowned Sparrow. — Common Transient Visitant,
May 1 to 19 ; September 22 to October 10.
Fox Sparrow. — Tolerably common Transient Visitant,
March 25 to April 20 ; October 20 to November 10.
Junco. — Common Transient Visitant, late March to May ;
October to December.
Tree Sparrow. — Common Winter Visitant, October 20 to
April.
Redpoll. — Rare Winter Visitant.
Snowflake. — Rare Winter Visitant.
American Crossbill. — Very irregular Winter Visitant.
Pine Grosbeak. — Rare Winter Visitant.
Goldfinch. — Common Permanent Resident ; abundant
Sunnner Resident.
Purple Fincii. — Tolerably common Winter Visitant, Oc-
tober to May.
Rose-bi"easted Grosbeak. — Tolerably common Summer
Resident. May to September.
Towhee. — Common Summer Resident, March 2Q to Octo-
ber 20.
Indigo Bunting. — Common Summer Resident, May to
October.
Cardinal. — Tolerably common Permanent Resident ;
mostly along rivers.
Dickcissel. — Variable Summer Resident, May to September.
Lark Finch. — Summer Resident, becoming common, April
28 to September 1.
Scarlet Tanager. — Common Summer Resident, May to
September.
Barn Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
September.
70 BIRDS OBSERVED AT OBERLIN, O.
Uliff Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
August 15.
Bank Swallow — Common Summer Resident, April 20 to
August 15.
Tree Swallow. — Rare Summer Resident, April 15 to Au-
gust 15.
Purple Martin. — Common Summer Resident, Api'il 1 to
September 1.
Cedar Waxwing. — Variable Summer Resident. When it
nests it remains the whole year.
Northern Shrike. — Not common Winter Visitant, No-
vember to March.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, late April
to late September.
Warbling Vireo. — Common Summer Resident, late April
to late September.
Yellow-throated Vireo.— Tolerably common Summer Resi-
dent, May 1 to September 10.
Black and White Warbler. — Common Transient Visitant,
late April to May 15; September 10 to 20.
Yellow Warbler. — Common Summer Resident, April 20
to August 1.
Myrtle Warbler. — Common Transient Visitant, April 15
to May 15 ; September to November.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Common Transient Vis-
itant, April 25 to May 15; September 10 to 20.
Redstart. — Common Summer Resident, late Api'il to Oc-
tober.
Oven-bird. — Common Summer Resident, late April to
August.
Maryland Yellowthroat. — Common Summer Resident,
late April to September.
Chat. — Not common Summer Re.sident, May to August 20.
Catbird. — x\bundant Summer Resident, April 25 to Oc-
tober.
Brown Thrasher. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
October.
House Wren. — Common Summer Resident, April 15 to
October.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS. 71
Winter Wi-en. — Scarcely common Winter Visitant, No-
veniber to May 17.
Long-billed Marsh Wren. — Not common Summer Resident.
Brown Creeper. — Not common Transient Visitant, late
March to May ; October.
Cliickadee. — Common Permanent Resident.
Tufted Titmouse. — Common Permanent Resident.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Common Permanent Resident.
Red-breasted Nuthatcli. — Common Transient Visitant,
April 1 to May 17; October.
Golden-crowned Kinglet. — Common Winter Visitant, Sep-
tember 25 to April 25.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Common Transient Visitant,
April 1 to May 5 ; September 25 to October 20.
Veery. — Not common Transient Visitant and Summer
Resident, May to September.
Wood Thrush. — Common Summer Resident, late April to
Septeml)er.
Hei'mit Thrush. — Not common Transient Visitant, April
15 to May 1 ; October.
Robin. — Abundant Summer Resident, February 15 to
November 25; a few usually winter.
Bluebird. — Common Summer Resident; early March to
November.
NOTES FROM IN AND NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS.,
ON THE BIRDS INCLUDED IN "BIRD-LIFE."
By H. Neorlixg.
Pied-billed Grebe. — Tolerably common Summer Resident,
April 10 to November 15.
Loon. — More or less common Summer Resident, April 1
to November 15 ; becoming scarcer.
Herring Gull. — Very abundant Winter Visitant, October
10 to May 5.
Wood Duck. — Very rare Summer Resident, March 20 to
October 25.
72 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS.
Pintail. — Summer Resident, March 18 to October 10.
Mallard. — Summer Resident, March 17 to November 25,
and later.
Green-winged Teal. — March 17 ; November 20.
Blue-winged Teal.— April 10 ; October 28.
Canada Goose. — March ; September 20 to October 1; move-
ments very irregular.
Great Blue Heron. — Common Summer Resident, April 1
to October 1.
Little Green Heron. — Summer Resident, May 1 to Septem-
ber 20.
American Bittern. — Summer Resident, April 18 to Septem-
ber 25.
Sora. — Common Summer Resident, April 26 to October 2.
American Coot. — Common Summer Resident, March 28 to
September 20.
Woodcock. — Summer Resident, April 25 to October 5.
Wilson's Snipe. — Rare Summer Resident; common during
migrations ; April 15 to October 5.
Spotted Sandpiper. — Common Summer Resident, April 28
to September 25.
Semipalmated Sandpiper. — May 6.
Killdeer. — Very common Summer Resident, March to
October 10 ; nests in West Park.
Semipalmated Plover. — Ma}^ 23.
Bob- white. — Extinct in AVisconsin.
Ruffed Grouse. — Permanent Resident, once common, now
very rare.
Mourning Dove. —Summer Resident, April 30 to October 10.
Turkey Buzzard. — Very rare.
Red shouldered Hawk. — Summer Resident, March 20 to
November 1.
Red tailed Hawk. — Summer Resident, March 20 to No-
vember 5.
Marsh Hawk. — Summer Resident, March 18 to October 15.
Sparrow Hawk. — Rather common Summer Resident,
March 18 to October 10.
Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Summer Resident, April 10 to Oc-
tober ] .
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS. 73
Cooper's Hawk. — Summer Resident, Api'il 20 to Octo-
ber 10.
Osprey. — Common Summer Resident, April 1 to Septem-
ber 20.
Short-eared Owl. — Permanent Resident.
Long-eared Owl. — Permanent Resident.
Screech Owl. — Common Permanent Resident; nests in the
city.
Black-billed Cuckoo. — Summer Resident, May 8 to Sep-
tember 1.
Yellows-billed Cuckoo. — Rather abundant Summer Resi-
dent, May 9 to September 2 ; nests in orchards in the
city.
Kingfisher. — Common Summer Resident, April 19 to Sep-
tember 18.
Downy Woodpecker. — Permanent Resident.
Hairy Woodpecker. — Summer Resident, April 17 to Octo-
ber J ; probably winters.
Red -headed Woodpecker. — Very common Summer Resi-
dent, April 30 to September 20 ; nests in tlie city.
Flicker. — Summer Resident, April 13 to September 25 ;
nests in the city.
Nighthawk. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 17 to
August 25 ; nests on liouse-tops in the city.
Whip-poor-will. — Rather scarce Summer Resident, May
20 to August 31.
Chimney Swift. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 12 to
September 10.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird. — Summer Resident, May 9
to October 6.
Kingbird. — Common Summer Resident, May 9 to Au-
gust 15.
Crested Flycatcher. — Very rare Summer Resident, May
11 to August 15.
Phoebe. — Common Summer Resident, March 20 to Sep-
tember 30.
Wood Pewee. — Common Summer Resident, May 20 to
August 31 ; nests in the city.
Prairie Horned Lark. — Common Permanent Resident.
19
74 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS.
Crow. — Permanent Resident.
Blue Jay. — Common Permanent Resident; nests in the
city.
Baltimore Oriole. — Not numerous Summer Resident, May
9 to August 25.
Red- winged Blackbird. — Abundant Summer Resident,
March 17 to November 1.
Bronzed Grackle. — Abundant Summer Resident, March 20
to October 26; nests in the city.
Bobolink. — Common Summer Resident, May 9 to Septem-
ber 1; not half so abundant as fifteen years ago.
Cowbird. — Very numerous Summer Resident, April 8 to
September 15.
Meadowlark. — Common Summer Resident, March 17 to
October 31.
Song Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, March 17 to
October 10; rare near the city.
Field Sparrow. — Rare Summer Resident, April 21 to Sep-
tember 20.
Chipping Sparrow. — Common Summer Resident, May 1
to September 10; nests in the city.
Vesper Sparrow. — Very common Summer Resident, April
10 to September 25.
White-tliroated Sparrow.— Very common Transient Vis-
itant, April 28 to May 20; September 20 to October 22.
White-crowned Sparrow. — Abundant Transient Visitant,
May 2 to 23 ; Sej^tember 20 to October 4.
Fox Sparrow.— Irregular Transient Visitant, April 4 to
April 18; October 25 to November 2.
Junco.— October 1 to April 10; breeds about 70 miles north
of city.
Tree Sparrow. — November 1 to March 20 ; breeds farther
north.
Redpoll. — Irregular Winter Visitant, occasionally abun-
dant.
Snowflake. — Irregular Winter Visitant, sometimes abun-
dant.
American Crossbill. — Irregular Winter Visitant, some-
times abundant.
BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS. 75
Pine Grosbeak. — Irregular Winter Visitant, sometimes
abundant.
American Goldfinch. — Summer Resident, May 1 to Octo-
ber; occasional as late as December 25.
Purple Finch. — Summer Resident, April 12 to November
6; breeds sparingly.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak. — Rather common Summer Resi-
dent, May 9 to Sejjtember 15 ; nests in the city.
Towhee. — Common Summer Resident, April 26 to Septem-
ber 15.
Indigo Bunting. — Rather common Summer Resident, May
9 to September 10.
Scarlet Tanagei*. — Summer Resident, May 9 to August 15;
nests in the city.
Barn Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 25 to
August 25.
Cliff Swallow. — Summer Resident, April 30 to August 26.
Bank Swallow.— April 30 to ?
Tree Swallow. — Common Summer Resident, April 25 to
August 25; nests in the city.
Purple Martin. — Common Summer Resident, April 26 to
August 20.
Cedar Waxwing. — Permanent Resident of irregular move-
ments; thousands winter; others migrate southward,
returning in May.
Northern Shrike. — Winter Resident, November 1 to
March 5.
Red-eyed Vireo. — Summer Resident, May 9 to August 25.
Warbling Vireo. — Summer Resident, May 11 to August 25.
Yellow-throated Vireo. — Summer Resident, May 19 to Au-
gust 20; ne.sts in the city.
Black and White Warbler. — May 1 to August 27; breed-
fartber north.
Yellow Warbler. — Common Summer Resident, May 9 to
August 26; nests in the city.
Black-throated Green Warbler. — Common Transient Vis-
itant, May 9 to May 15; August 15 to September 1.
Myrtle Warbler. — Transient Visitant, April 17 to May 1 ;
October 1 to October 10.
76 BIRDS OBSERVED NEAR MILWAUKEE, WIS.
Redstart. — Commou Summer Resident, May 9 to August
23.
Oven-bird. — Abundant Summer Resident, May 6 to Sep-
tember 5.
Yellow-breasted Chat. — Rare.
Maryland Yellovvtliroat. — Common Summer Resident,
May 5 to August 20.
Catbird. — Common Summer Resident, May 5 to August 25.
Brown Thrasher. — Summer Resident, April 25 to Sei^tem"
ber 1.
House Wi-en. — Common Summer Resident, May 1 to Au-
gust 25.
Long-billed Marsh Wren. — Common Summer Resident,
May 15 to September G.
Brown Creeper. — April 4 to October 28 ; appears to breed
near here.
Chickadee. — Permanent Resident.
White-breasted Nuthatch. — Permanent Resident.
Red-breasted Nuthatch. — April 22, and again November
1 ; movements irregular ; breeds farther north.
Golden -ci-owued Kinglet. — April 4, and again October 1 to
October 10.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. — Ajji-il 10, and again September 3
to October 2.
Veery. — Summer Resident, breeding sparingly, May 9 to
August 31.
Wood Thrush. — Summer Resident, April 31 to Septem-
ber 2.
Hermit Thrush. — April 10 ; October 1 ; breeds farther
north.
Robin. — Common Summer Resident, March 17 to Octo«
ber 1.
Bluebird. — Summer Resident, March 17 to October 15.
SUBJECTITE LESSONS.*
Factors of Evolution (Chapter II, pages 14-16). — Give
examples illustrating' the diversity shown in the structure
and habits of birds. What theory has been advanced to
account for the wide variation in structure shown by birds ?
What is meant by Natural Selection ? How does the
theory of Lamarck differ from that of Darwin ? How
may the tail-feathers of the Woodpecker have acquired
their present ])ointed shape ? Is it probable that the Wood-
pecker's barbed tongue has been acquired in the same
manner ?
Form and Habit.
The Wing (Chapter II, pages 17-24).— Name the func-
tions of the wing. What is doubtless its most primitive
use as an organ of locomotion ? How is it used by young
Gallinules ? By the young Hoatzin ? How is it used by
Grebes and Penguins ? By the Ostrich ? What variation
in expanse of wings is presented by birds ? What rela-
tion exists between shape of wing and style of flight ?
Give illustrations. Mention some flightless birds. Why
is flight necessary to the Razor-billed Auk ? Under what
conditions might it exist without the power of flight ?
What group of flightless birds is found in the Antarctic
region ? Where do they nest ? Why ? What birds be-
come temporarily flightless ? In what manner ? What
lake is inhabited by a flightless Grebe ? Where are flight-
less Gallinules found ? How did they probably reach the
islands they now inhabit ? Mention other flightless birds.
* The value of these lessons will be greatly enhanced if the
teacher will constantly have the pupil name additional species in
illustration of the facts and theories here mentioned.
77
78 SUBJECTIVE LESSONS.
In what manner is the wing sexually adorned ? How is
it used as a nausical instrument ? How may it express
emotion ?
The Tail (Cliapter II, pages 25-27). — Mention some birds
in which the tail is sexually developed. What is the tail's
main office ? Give illustrations of its relation to the char-
acter of flight. What birds use the tail as a prop ? De-
scribe the tail of the Motmot. How may the tail express
emotion ? Give illustrations.
The Feet (Chapter II, pages 27-30). — What relation ex-
ists between the feet and wings ? Give illu.strations of the
relation between the structure of the feet and the manner
in which they are used. On what is length of foot some-
times dependent ? Describe the Jacana's toes ? Of what
assistance are they to the bird ? What birds use the feet
in sci'atching for food? What birds use the foot as a
liand ? Of what special use is it to the Birds of Prey '{
Mention several species which use the foot as a weapon.
Describe the seasonal modification in the feet of Grouse.
The Bill (Chapter II, pages 30-34).— To what human
organ does the bill coi'respond in use ? Mention some of
the functions of tlie bill. What is its most important
office ? What does the bill in effect become ? To what is
its shape in Hummingbirds related ? Give illustrations.
What is a marked character of tlie bill of some fish-eating
birds ? How is the bill used by some shore birds ? Give
illustrations. Describe the shape and uses of the Huia-
bird's bill.
Colors of Birds.
Color and Age (Chapter III, page 3G). — What is the
character of the nest plumage of birds that run or swim at
birtli ? Of birds that are reared in a nest ? Give illus-
trations. What plumage follows the nest plumage ? Does
it resemble that of the parent ? How long is it worn ?
Does the immature plumage sometimes differ from that of
the adult? Give illustrations. When does the Bobolink
acquire his full plumage ? When, the Orchard Oriole ?
Color and Season (Chapter III, page 37). — When the
SUBJECTIVE LESSONS. 79
male differs from tlie female, what seasonal change in
color may occur ? If the sexes are alike, is there much
variation in color ?
Tke Molt (Chapter III, pages 37, 38). — How are changes
in a bird's plumage chiefly accouiplished ? Is the process
of molting subject to much variation ? What are these
variations apparently dependent on ? At what time of the
year do all birds molt ? What usually occurs the follow-
ing spring? Do any birds have a complete spring molt ?
Are special plumes ever acquired at this season ? Describe
the manner in which the Snowflake gains its bi'eeding
dress.
Color and Food (Chapter III, page 39). — How is the
color of Canaries sometimes altered ? What is the effect
of red pepper on fowls ? What is sometimes fed to Par-
rots to change their color ? How do Flamingoes and Scar-
let Ibises illustrate the relation between color and food ?
What color does the Purple Finch become in captivity ?
Color and Climate (Chapter III, pages 39-41). — How
does climate affect the colors of birds ? What does this
demonstrate ? How many races of Song Sparrows are
known ? What relation exists between their colors and
the climate of the regions in which they live ? Where are
the extremes in color found ? Are these extremes con-
nected ? What is the prevailing character of the colors
of Arizona birds ? Of northwest coast birds ? What are
these races of birds ? Under what conditions might they
become species ?
Color and Haunt and Habit (Chapter III, pages 41-44). —
What is necessary to an understanding of the value of
the colors of birds ? What is the office of protective color-
ing ? What of deceptive coloring ? What are the prevail-
ing colors of ground-inhabiting birds ? Give examples.
Are tree-inhabiting birds brighter than those that live on
the ground ? What explanation is advanced to account
for this ? How do we receive an erroneous idea of the col-
ors of tropical birds ? What has Mr. Thayer ])roved ?
What fact does lie call attention to ? How does this tend
to conceal the animal ? How does Mr. Thayer demon-
80 SUBJECTIVE LESSONS.
stmte liis theory ? Mention one of the best arguments for
the value of protective coloration. Give illustrations.
What birds illustrate the value of deceptive coloring- ?
What are recognition or signalling colors ? Give illustra-
tions.
Color and Sex (Chapter III, pages 45-47).— The pupil
should learn the Synopsis of Secondary Sexual Charac-
ters, and give one or more illustrations of each kind of
sexual difference mentioned. Explain and illustrate Dar-
win's theory of sexual selection. How does the theory of
Wallace differ from that of Darwin ?
The Migration of Birds.
Extent of Migration (Chapter lY, page 49).— Upon
what is the extent of migration often dependent ? Explain
this. Where do most migratory western species winter ?
Where do our eastern migratory Sparrows and berry
eaters winter ? Where do the majority of our eastern in-
sectivorous .species winter ? What route do they follow ?
How far south do some Plover and Snipe winter ?
Times of Migration (Chapter IV, pages 49-53). — This
branch of the study of bird migration is covered much
more fully under the section devoted to seasonal lessons,
where the method of treatment is suggested. The matter
here given should be used in connection with the added
material in the section named.
Manner of Migration (Chapter IV, pages 54-57). — What
is the first step in the fall migration ? Do old or young-
birds lead the way ? What birds fly by night ? Why ?
Give examples. What birds migrate chiefly by day ?
Why ? Give examples. What birds migrate exclusiv^ely
by day? Why? Give examples. What constitute high-
ways of migration ? At what height ma}^ migrating birds
travel ? Of what advantage is this heigiit to them ? When
are birds attracted to lighthouses ? How may one observe
the night migration of birds ? How many birds were thus
observed at Tenaflj^, N. J. ? Describe the observations
made from the Bartholdi Statue.
SUBJECTIVE LESSONS. 81
Origin of Migratioyi (Chapter IV, pages 58-61). — What
theory is here advanced to account for the origin of bird
migration? Wliat other animals migrate? What do
most animals seelc during the period of reproduction ?
Give illustrations. Describe the migrations of certain sea
birds. What has been the probable influence of the gla-
cial period on bird migration ? Describe the route followed
by Bobolinks when migrating. What does this illustrate?
In what manner does the migration of birds resemble the
flight of the Carrier Pigeon ?
The Voice of Birds.
Song (Chapter V, page 62). — What is song? What is
its cliief function ? Mention several types of bird music.
To what does the song season correspond ? When and b}'
what species is it inaugurated ? When is it practically
concluded ? Is there a second song period ? What birds
first cease singing ? What birds are midsummei* singers ?
Call-notes (Chapter V, page 65). — What is the relation
of call-notes to song ? What do the calls of the Robin
express ? Do birds inherit the calls and songs ? Do they
ever acquire the notes of other species ?
The Nesting Season.
Time of Nesting {Q\\a,^iQv VI, page 64). — At what season
do migratory birds nest ? When do tropical birds nest ?
Why are birds obliged to nest at a certain season ? Give
some examples illustrating the relation between nesting
time and food.
Mating (Chapter VI, page 65). — (See page 45, Synopsis
of the Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds.)
The Nest (Chapter VI, pages 65-68).— Wliat is the first
step in nest-building ? Mention several sites in which birds
may nest. What is the chief desideratum ? Why can sea
birds often lay their eggs in exposed places ? How is tem-
perament shown in nesting ? Mention several kinds of
material used by birds in nest-building. How have birds
62 SUBJECTIVE LESSONa
as nest-builders been classified ? Do both sexes assist in
nest-building ? How much time may be consumed in the
couslruction of a nest ? Mention the eight factors govern-
ing the character of birds' nests and give examjiles illus-
trating each.
The Eggs (Chapter VI, pages 68-70). — How many eggs
may compose a full set ? If the nest is robbed, will the
eggs be replaced ? Give illustrations. Of what is the egg-
shell composed ? To what is the color of eggs due ? How
may variations in color be eflPected ? Is there much varia-
tion in the color of the eggs of the same species ? Why
are the eggs of praecocial birds lai'ger than those of altri-
cial birds ? Give examples. What are the extremes in
the period of incubation ? Do both sexes incubate ?
The Young (Chapter VI, page 70). — The mental and
pbysical growth of the Chicken form an excellent and
practical lesson in the development of a young bird. A
newly hatched chick may be procured and placed in a
suitable cage in the class-room, where its actions and
plumage may be closely studied. Experiments may be
made, showing how little inherited knowledge the chick
possesses, by giving it bits of worsted, etc., to eat, and ob-
serving how it learns what is and what is not edible, how
it does not instinctively recognize water, etc., and at the
same time notes should be kept of its changes in plumage.
CLASSIFICATION OP THE BIRDS OF NORTH
AMERICA.*
ORDER I.— PYGOPODES (DIVING BIRDS).
Ducklike birds, with generally sharply pointed bills;
feet webbed, placed far back near the tail ; tarsus much
flattened ; ijind toe, when pi-esent, with a lobe or flap ;
bill without toothlike projections ; tail very short, and
sometimes apparently wanting.
Family 1. — Podicipidoi. Grebes; 6 species.
Family 2. — Urinatoridce. Loons; 5 species.
Family 3. — Alcidce. Auks, Murres, and PuiRns ; 22
species.
ORDER II.— liONGIPENNES (LiONG-WINGED
SWIMMERS),
Birds with sharply pointed and frequently hooked or
hawklike bills; toes four (except in the genus Rissa), the
front ones webbed: wings long and pointed.
Family 4. — Stercorariidce. Skuas and Jaegers; 4 spe-
cies.
Family 5. — Laridce. Gulls and Terns; 43 species.
Family 6.—Rynchopidm. Skimmers; 1 species.
ORDER III.— TUBINARES (TUBE-NOSED
SWIMMERS).
Bill hawklike, the tip of the upper mandible generally
much enlarged ; nostrils opening through tubes ; hind toe
* The arrangement and nomenclature here given is based on the
American Ornithologist Union's Check-List, 2d edition, 1895.
83
84 THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA.
reduced to a mere nail, and sometimes entirely wanting ;
front toes webbed.
Family l.—Diomediidoe,. Albatrosses; 4 species.
Family 8.—Procellariidce. Fulmars, Petrels, and
Shearwaters; 28 species.
ORDER IV.— STEGANOPODES (TOTIPALMATE
SWIM31E11S).
Toes four; all connected by webs.
Family 9. — Phaethontidm. Tropic Birds ; 2 .species.
Family 10.— Sulidce. Gaunets; 0 species.
Family 11. — Anhingidce. Darters ; 1 species.
Family 12. — Phalacrocoracidoe. Cormorants; G spe-
cies.
Family 13. — Pelecanidce. Pelicans ; 3 species.
Family 14. — Fregatidce. Man-o'-War Birds; 1 species.
ORDER v.— ANSERES (IjAMELLIROSTRALi
SW1M3IERS).
Toes four, the front ones fully webbed ; tarsus not flat-
tened as in the Grebes ; bill with toothlike projections,
Huted ridges, or gutters on its sides.
Family 15. — Anatidce. Ducks, Geese, and Swans; 54
species.
ORDER VI.— ODONTOGLOSS.^ (LAMELLIROSTRAL
GRALLATORES).
Toes four, the front three webbed ; bill with toothlike
ridges as in some Ducks, the end half bent downward ;
legs long ; tarsus 12"00 inches or more in length.
Family 16. — Phcenicopteridce. Flamingoes ; 1 species.
ORDER VII.— HERODIONES (HERONS, STORKS,.
IBISES, ETC.).
Toes four, all on the same level, slightly or not at all
webbed ; lores bare ; legs and neck generally much
lengthened.
THE BIRDS OP NORTH AMERICA. 85
Family 17. — Plataleidce. Spoonbills ; 1 species.
Family 18. — Ibididce. Ibises ; 4 species.
Family IQ.—Ciconiida;. Stoi-Ics and Wood Ibises; 2
species.
Family 20. — Ardeidce. Herons, Bitterns, etc.; 15
species.
ORDER VIII.— PALiUDICOL^ (CRANES, RAILS, ETC.).
Toes four; middle toe without a comb, generally not
webbed ; liind toe generally small, higher than front
ones, or when ou the same level (Galliuules and Coots
only), the bill is comparatively short and stout, and the
forehead has a bare shield ; lores feathered, or with hair-
like bristles (Cranes).
Family 21. —Gruidoi. Cranes ; 3 species.
Family 22. — Aramidoe. Courlans ; 1 species.
Family 2S.—Iiallidce. Rails, Gallinules, and Coots ;
17 species.
ORDER IX,— LIMICOL^ (SHORE BIRDS).
Toes four or three ; the hind toe, when present, less than
half the length of the inner one, and always elevated
above the others ; legs generally long and slender, the
lower half of the tibiae bare : bill, in the true Snipe, gener-
ally long, slender, and soft, the nostrils opening through
slits or grooves ; wings long and pointed, the first primary
generally the largest.
Family 24. — Plialaropodidoe. Phalaropes; 3 species.
Family 25. — Recur virostridce. Avocets and Stilts; 2
species.
Family 26. — Scolopacidoe. Snipes and Sandpipers ; 43
species.
. Family 27. — Charadriidce. Plovers; 13 species.
Family 28. — ApJu^izidoe. Surf Birds and Turnstones;
3 species.
Family 29. — Hoematopodidoe. Oyster-catchers; 4 spe-
cies.
Family 30. — JacanidcB. Jacanas; 1 species.
86 THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA.
ORDER X.— GAIiLIX^ (GALLINACEOUS BIRDS).
Toes four, the hind one small and elevated above the
front ones; bill generally short, stout, hard, and horny;
wings short, the outer primaries curved and much stiff-
ened.
Family 31. — Tetraonidce. Grouse, Partridges, etc. ; 20
species.
Fasuly 32. — Phasianidce. Pheasants, Turkeys, etc. ; 1
species.
Family 33. — Cracidoe. Curassows, Guans, etc. ; 1
species.
ORDER XI.— COLUMB^ (PIGEONS).
All four toes on the same level ; the hind toe about as
long as the shortest front one ; bill rather slender, deeply
grooved; the nostrils opening in a soft fleshy membrane
or skin.
Family 34. — Columbidoe. Pigeons; 13 species.
ORDER XII.— RAPTORES (VULTURES, H.ATI^KS,
AND OWLS).
All four toes armed with strong, sharp, curved nails or
talons; tlie hind toe, except in the Vultures, as long as
or longer than the shortest front one; bill with a cere, or
covering of skin, at its base, through which the nostrils
open, very strong and stout, the tip of the upper mandible
with a sharply pointed hook.
Family 35. — Cathartidcn, American Vultures; 3 spe-
cies.
Family 36. — Falconidce. Vultures, Falcons, Hawks,
Eagles, etc. ; 39 species.
Family 37. — Strigidce. Barn Owls; 1 species.
Family S8.—Bubonidce. Horned Owls, Hoot Owls,
etc. ; 17 species.
THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 87
ORDER XIII.— PSITTACI (PARROTS, PAROQUETS,
ETC.).
Toes four, two in front and two behind ; bill with a
cere, or covering of skin, at its base.
Family 39. — Psittacidce. Parrots and Paroquets ; 1
species.
ORDER XIV.— COCCYGES (CUCKOOS AND KING-
FISHERS).
Toes four, two in front and two behind (Cuckoos), or
three in front, the middle and outer ones joined for half
their length ; bill without a cere.
Family 40. — Cuculidce. Cuckoos, Anis, etc. ; 7 species.
Family 41. — Trogonidce. Trogons ; 1 species.
Family 42. — Alcedinidce. Kingfishers ; 3 species.
ORDER XV.— PICI (WOODPECKERS).
Toes four, or, rarely, tliree; two in front; bill strong;
tail-feathers usually pointed and stiffened.
Family 43. — Picidoe. AVoodpeckers ; 24 species.
ORDER XVI.— MACROCHIRES (GOATSUCKERS,
SWIFTS, AND HUMMINGBIRDS).
Feet very small and weak ; bill short, and mouth large
(Goatsuckers and Swifts), or bill long and exceedingly
slender (Hummingbirds) ; wings generally long and
pointed.
Family 4i.—Caprimulgidce. Goatsuckers ; 6 species.
Family 45. — MicropodidcB. Swifts ; 4 species.
Family 46. — Ti-ochilidce. Hummingbirds ; 18 species.
ORDER XVII.— PASSERES (PERCHING BIRDS).
Toes four, without webs, all on the same level ; hind
toe as long as the middle one ; its nail generally longer
88 THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA.
than that of the middle one; foot, therefore, fitted for
perching.
FA3IILY 47. — Cotingidce. Cotingas ; 1 species.
Family 48. — Tyrannidoe. Flycatchers ; 33 species.
Family 49. — Alaudidce. Larks ; 2 species.
Family 50. — Corvidoe. Crows, Jays, Magpies, etc. ; 20
species.
Family 51.— Sturnidce. Starlings ; 1 species.
Family 52. — Icteridce. Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. ; 20
species.
Family 53. — Fringillidce. Finches, Sparrows, etc. ; 94
species.
Family 54. — Tanagridce. Tanagers ; 6 species.
Family 55. — Hirundinidce. Swallows ; 10 species.
Family 56. — Ampelidce. Wax wings, etc. ; 3 species.
Faiviily 57. — Laniidce. Shrikes ; 2 species.
Family 58. — Vireonidce. Vireos ; 12 species.
Family 59. — Coerebidce. Honey Creepers ; 1 species.
Family 60. — Mniotiltidce. Wood Warblers; 59 species.
Family 61. — Motacillidce. Wagtails ; 7 sjiecies.
Family 62. — Cinclidre. Dippers ; 1 species.
Family 63. — Troglodytidce. Wrens, Thrashers, etc. ;
25 species.
Family 64. — Cerfhiidce. Creepers; 1 species.
Family 65. — Paridce. Nuthatclies and Tits; 21 species.
Family 66. Sylviidce. Kinglets and Guatcatchers; 7
species.
Family 67. — Turdidce. Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc.; 15
species.